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First  Principles  of 
Feeding  Farm  Animals 


A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Feeding  of  Farm 
Animals:  Discussing  the  Fundamental  Prin- 
ciples and  Reviewing  the  Best  Practices 
of  Feeding  for  Largest  Returns 


By 
CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT 

Editor  American  Agriculturist 

Formerly  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  New  Hampshire  and  North  Carolina 

Colleges  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic    Arts,  and  Director 

of  the  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


NEW  YORK     ' 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  Limited 
1916 


Copyright,  1912,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 
LONDON,  ENGLAND 


PRINTED  IN  U.  S.  A, 


PREFACE 

The  fundamental  principles  of  feeding  animajs 
are  applicable  to  all  parts  of  the  country  and  to  all 
parts  of  the  world.  For  many  years  investigators 
have  been  at  work  on  problems  of  nutrition  and  on 
interpreting  the  data  obtained.  As  a  result  the 
student  farmer  has  now  at  hand  useful  suggestions 
that  will  assist  in  handling  the  feeding  problems 
of  the  farm  to  the  best  advantage.  The  man  who 
feeds  in  a  scientific  manner  is  able  not  only  to  use 
his  feeding  stuffs  more  economically  but  he  can 
obtain  animal  products  more  cheaply  than  can  his 
neighbor  who  ignores  the  helps  that  science  offers 
him.  To  these  facts  the  author  himself  can  testify. 
He  not  only  has  been  a  teacher  of  animal  nutrition 
for  many  years,  but  has  had  a  life-time  experience 
also  with  the  practical  problems  of  feeding  in  feed- 
lots  and  stables. 

The  volume  herewith  presented  discusses  the  first 
principles  of  scientific  feeding  and  aims  to  interpret 
them  so  as  to  be  equally  useful  to  student,  stockman 
and  farmer.  In  this  presentation,  the  needs  of  the 
teacher  of  animal  feeding  have  also  been  kept  in 
mind  at  every  step,  the  object  being  to  set  forth  the 
several  phases  in  pedagogical  as  well  as  utilitarian 
form. 

.€.  W.  Burkett. 

New  York,  July,  1912. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

Page 

THE  SOIL,  THE  PLANT,  THE  ANIMAL 1 

How  Nature  is  balanced — Plant  food  a  small  part  of 
soil — Elements  of  plant  and  animal  life — Elements  are 
united — Cycle  of  life — The  farm  and  the  animals — Sup- 
ply of  plant  food — Poor  grass,  poor  cattle — Soil  im- 
provement and  live  stock — Role  of  the  legumes — Nat- 
ural manures  and  fertilizers — Animals  change  raw 
materials. 


CHAPTER  II 
WHAT  FEEDING  STUFFS  CONTAIN 12 

Plant  cells — Building  plant  tissue — Starch — How  plants 
use  starch — Protein — Fat  or  oil — What  plant  building 
means — Ash  or  mineral  materials — Water — Crude  fiber 
— Grouping  the  plant  constituents — What  the  plant  has 
done — Elements  and  their  symbols. 


CHAPTER  III 
How  FOOD  Is  DIGESTED 21 

Making  ready  for  digestion — What  is  done  in  the  mouth 
— From  mouth  to  stomach — The  compartments  of  the 
cow's  stomach — Stomach  secretion — From  stomach  to 
intestines — The  two  intestines — From  intestines  to  blood 
— Villi  cells — Respiration. 


CHAPTER  IV 
USING  FEEDS  FOR  BEST  RESULTS 29 

Digestibility  little  influenced  by  quantity — The  individ- 
ual character  of  the  animal — Digestibility  decreases  as 
plants  mature — Shall  grain  be  ground — Steaming  and 
cooking  food. 

vii 


Vlll  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

CHAPTER  V 

COMPOSITION   OF  ANIMALS 36 

Combustible  matter — Water — Range  of  variation  of  ma- 
terials—Principal ash  constituents — Percentage  of  in- 
crease in  fattening — Group  constituents — What  these 
compounds  do. 

CHAPTER  VI 
FOOD  NUTRIENTS 44 

Nutrients  defined — Most  feeding  stuffs  are  unbalanced 
— Digestibility  defined — How  digestibility  of  a  food  is 
determined — First  step  is  to  obtain  composition — Diges- 
tible nutrients — Correct  rations  are  based  on  digesti- 
bility. 

CHAPTER  VII 
SOME  SCIENTIFIC  TERMS  IN  FEEDING 54 

The  animal  as  a  machine — Reducing  fat  to  carbohy- 
drates— Determining  the  nutritive  ratio — Wide  or  nar- 
row nutritive  ratio — Balanced  ration — Feeding  stand- 
ards— Feeding  standards  only  a  guide. 

CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  COMPUTATION  OF  RATIONS 63 

Animal  uses  of  food — Three  kinds  of  rations — Mixed 
food — How  a  ration  is  made — Feeding  for  heavy  milk- 
ers— Using  the  standard  in  practical  work — What  foods 
to  choose. 

CHAPTER  IX 
BASING  STANDARDS  ON  QUALITY  OF  MILK 75 

Haecker's  investigations — The  Haecker  standard — How 
to  establish  a  standard — Compared  with  Wolff  standard. 

CHAPTER  X 
COMPUTING  RATIONS  ON  BASIS  OF  STARCH  VALUES 82 

Starch  value  illustrated — Relative  starch  values — How 
to  obtain  starch  value — Actual  starch  value  below  calcu- 
lated starch  value — Calculating  starch  values  on  basis  of 
availability— Feeding  stuffs  with  much  fiber— Starch  val- 
ues for  all  classes  of  stock— Feeding  standards  on  basis 
of  starch  values. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  IX 

CHAPTER  XI 
USING  ENERGY  VALUES  FOR  COMPUTING  RATIONS 93 

Feeding  stuffs  possess  energy — Units  of  measuring  heat 
— Waste  of  chemical  energy — Energy  values  in  feeds- 
Requirements  for  maintenance — Requirements  for 
growth — Requirements  for  fattening — Requirements  for 
milk — Requirements  for  work — Computing  a  ration  for 
steers — Computing  a  ration  for  dairy  cows. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  COST  OF  THE  RATION 107 

The  practical  question — Two  rations  compared  on  basis 
of  cost — Two  rations  for  horses  compared — Feeding 
stuffs  vary  in  price — Easy  to  swap  feeds — Use  judgment 
in  purchasing  feeds — Grow  the  legumes. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

COST  OF  NUTRIENTS 117 

Bulk  food  should  be  home  grown — Protein  not  solely 
purchased — Purchase  of  protein — On  basis  of  total 
digestible  nutrients — Using  judgment  in  getting  protein 
— Roughage  materials. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
FEEDING  YOUNG  ANIMALS 125 

Food  requirements  of  the  young — Colostrum — Ration 
should  be  changed  as  age  advances — Nature  widens  the 
ration — From  whole  to  skim  milk — Little  trouble  with 
suckling  animals — Calf  feeds — Feeding  the  dairy  calf — 
Feeding  the  beef  calf— The  feeding  of  lambs— The 
feeding  of  pigs — Feeding  the  foal. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  FEEDING  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS 145 

Feeding  the  dairy  cow  when  carrying  calf — At  calving 
time — The  brood  sow: — Exercise  for  brood  sows — The 
brood  mare — The  ewe— At  lambing  time. 


X  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

CHAPTER  XVI 
FEEDING  FARM  HORSES 156 

Food  requirements  for  horses — A  fundamental  principle 
in  horse  feeding — Nature  of  food — Character  of  food — 
Requirements  for  work — Giving  water — Order  of  hay, 
grain  and  water — Regularity  in  feeding  and  watering- 
Roughage  feeds  for  horses — Grain  feeds  for  horses — 
Selecting  the  ration — Feeding  the  stallion — Fattening 
horses  for  market — Feeding  mules. 

CHAPTER  XVII 
FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 172 

Food  requirements  of  dairy  cattle — The  milk-yielding 
function — How  often  to  milk — What  age  of  cow  is  best 
— What  influences  the  quality  of  milk — Pastures  are 
ideal  basic  rations — Feeding  grain  on  pasture — When 
pastures  are  short  and  parched — Letting  feeding  stand- 
ards serve  as  guides — Producing  milk  economically — 
Protein  requirements — Feeding  dairy  cows  in  winter — 
Nature  of  the  food — Foods  that  all  may  grow — Avail- 
able green  feeds — Grain  and  quality  of  butter — Feed- 
ing young  dairy  stock — During  the  first  winter — Satis- 
factory grain  mixtures — During  the  second  winter — 
Stable  management — Salt  and  water — The  tuberculin 
test — The  herd  bull — The  order  of  supplying  the  food — 
Some  sample  rations — For  dairy  calves,  dry  cows  in 
summer,  dry  cows  in  winter,  for  cows  yielding  16  to  25 
pounds  of  milk  daily,  for  cows  yielding  from  25  to  40 
pounds  of  milk  daily. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
FEEDING   BEEF   CATTLE 198 

Food  requirements  for  beef — Wild  cattle  seldom  fat — 
Good  and  bad  beef  stock — Character  of  a  good  steer 
— Two  classes  of  beef  animals — Nature  of  the  ration — 
From  calf  to  steer — Feeding  calves  intended  for  beef — 
The  skim-milk  calf — Calves  on  whole  milk — Making 
veal — Feeding  during  the  first  winter — Finishing  beeves 
under  18  months — Baby  beeves  finished  on  grass — 
Beeves  finished  at  two  years  of  age — Objections  against 
baby  beef — Summer  feeding  on  grass — Fall  feeding  on 
grass — Feeding  full-grown  cattle — Older  steers  are  still 
marketed — Fatten  the  heifers  early — Prominent  feeding 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  XI 

Page 

stuffs — Many  kinds  of  roughage  foods — Leading  grain 
foods — Some  sample  rations — Maintenance  ration  for 
breeding  cows — Winter  yearlings  with  and  without  grain 
— Rations  for  fattening  steers. 

CHAPTER  XIX 
FEEDING  SHEEP 223 

Food  requirements  for  sheep — Wool  and  mutton — Rela- 
tive economy  of  sheep,  steers  and  pigs — Wide  variety  of 
feed  for  sheep — Choosing  the  feed — Roots  always  fine 
for  sheep — Sheep  require  water — When  turning  to  pas- 
ture— Proportion  of  grain  to  roughage — How  often  to 
feed  sheep — Feeding  corn  in  the  field — Rape  an  excellent 
sheep  feed — Roughage  feeds — Temporary  fences  by 
means  of  hurdles — Putting  sheep  on  full  grain  rations — 
Some  of  the  best  grains — Feeding  lambs  for  market — 
Fattening  grown  sheep — Some  sample  rations  for  lambs 
weighing  50  to  60  pounds — For  lambs  weighing  60  to  80 
pounds — For  lambs  weighing  80  to  100  pounds — For 
sheep  in  winter — Sheep  on  full  feed — For  ewes  with 
lambs  at  side. 


CHAPTER  XX 

FEEDING  SWINE 241 

Food  requirements  for  swine — Hogs  consume  much  and 
give  generous  returns — Fastest  gains  are  made  during 
early  growth — Rations  are  narrow  at  first — Mineral 
matter  and  charcoal— Making  a  slop— Pasture  for  pigs- 
Grazing  runs  for  hogs — Forage  for  cheap  gain — Fatten- 
ing hogs— Making  good  bacon— Hogging  off  corn- 
Hogs  as  harvesters — Some  sample  rations  for  young 
pigs — For  pigs  three  to  six  months  of  age — Pigs  on  pas- 
ture. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
FEEDING  FARM   POULTRY 258 

Eggs  chemically  analyzed — Various  rations  required — 
Feed  for  little  chicks — Weaned  chicks  on  good  range- 
Feeding  larger  chicks — Fattening  the  cockerels — Grain 
feed  for  fowls — Green  feeds — Meat  or  animal  feed  im- 
portant— Grit  is  necessary — Hens  in  summer — During 
the  molt— Feeding  for  eggs  in  winter. 


Xll  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  SILO  AND  SILAGE 277 

Economy  in  silage — Capacity  of  silos — Corn  the  best  sil- 
age crop — Essentials  of  a  good  silo — Calculating  size  of 
silo — Filling  the  silo — Feeding  silage — Feeding  silage 
after  milking — Crops  for  silage — Cutting  corn  for  silage 
— Building  the  silo — Get  a  solid  foundation — Other  types 
of  silos — Hollow  clay  blocks. 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  SOILING  SYSTEM 289 

Good  pastures  always  popular — Rape  supplements  pas- 
tures— Soiling  crops  in  favor — Soiling  crops  have  a 
place — Alfalfa  ranks  first — Green  corn  for  summer — 
Root  crops  not  to  be  left  out — Advantages  of  soiling — 
Smaller  area  needed — Fewer  fences  needed — Food  de- 
stroyed by  tramping — Less  acreage  required — Soil  Im- 
provement more  readily  obtained — Objections  to  the 
practice  of  soiling — Suggestions  for  a  soiling  scheme. 

CHAPTER  XXIV 
RELATION  OF  FOOD  TO  MANURE 306 

Quality  of  manure — Value  of  farm  manures — Double 
value  in  feeds — Selling  fertility — Loss  of  fertility  con- 
tained in  feed — Poor  manure — Why  full  value  of  fer- 
tility of  feeds  is  not  secured  to  lands — The  full  value 
of  a  feeding  stuff. 

APPENDIX   .  — ~ 317 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Pago 

Rational  Feeding  Plus  Rational   Breeding Frontispiece 

C\'oss  Section  of  Root  Hair : 2 

Stomata  or  Leaf  Mouths 4 

Two  Sources  of  Phosphorus 5 

Poor  Cattle  Often  Indicate  Poor  Land 7 

Double  Good  from  Soy  Beans ._  8 

"What  the  Fertilizing  Elements  Are  Worth 9 

Converting  Raw  Material  into  Finished  Products 10 

Hc.w  an  Animal  Cell  Divides 12 

Underside  of  a  Leaf 14 

Starch  Cells J 15 

Leaf   Cells   16 

Growing  Plants  Contain  Much  Water 17 

How  the  Sap  Currents  Move 18 

Stomach  of  Ruminant 23 

Blood  Plasma 25 

Villi  Cells 26 

How  the  Blood  Circulates  Through  the  Body 28 

Corn  in  Good  Shocks 29 

A  Steer  that  Was  a  Poor  Feeder 30 

Making  Good  Hay  Is  a  Fine  Art 32 

From  a  Grain  of  Wheat 34 

Cheapest  Gains  Are  Made  with  Young  Animals 36 

Food  Consumed  During  Fattening  Period 39 

Wrhat  an  Animal  Contains 40 

Cycle  of  Life 41 

Cowpeas  a  Rich  Food 44 

Mineral  Matter  in  Some  Common  Foods 46 

What  Field  Corn  Contains -, 48 

What   Corn    Stover   Contains 1 50 

He  Had  a  Good  Ration 52 

Nutritive  Ratio  of  Some  Common  Feeding  Stuffs 55 

xiii 


XIV  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Balancing  the  Ration  Improves  It 58 

When  the  Feeding  Period  Is  Extended 59 

Timothy  Not  a  Balanced  Food 64 

Mixing  Their  Own  Ration 65 

Heavy  Milkers  Require  Big  Rations 71 

Where  Science  Helps  to  Fatten 73 

It  Pays  to  Give  the  Right  Feed 76 

Dairy  Cows  Should  Be  Fed  Milk-Stimulating  Rations 78 

Typical  Steer  for  Feeding 84 

Alfalfa  Ready  for  Cutting 87 

Laboratory  Where  Food  Values  Are  Determined 94 

Revealing  Facts  About  Digestion 97 

Mature  Steers  Nearly  Ready  for  Market 101 

Oats  and  Peas  Are  Excellent  for  Hay  or  Soiling 108 

Converting  Corn  into  Coin 114 

Remarkable  Leghorn  and  Her  Achievements 118 

The  Newly  Born  Require  Colostrum 125 

Young  Calves  Should  Be  Kept  Steadily  on  the  Gain 128 

Gathering  up  What  the  Steers  Drop 131 

Ready  for  Their  Breakfast 133 

Beef  in  the  Making 135 

Bred  for  Beef 136 

Thrifty  Lambs  Follow  Good  Care  and  Wise  Feeding 138 

Large  Litter  of  Vigorous  Pigs 140 

Resting  in  the  Pasture  Field 142 

An  Inexpensive  Colt  Creep 143 

Too  Fat  for  Good  Breeders 145 

Feeding  Box  for  Alfalfa  Hay 149 

A  Portable  Hog  House 150 

Making  Pork  from  Rape 151 

Rounding  Them  up  in  the  Pasture 153 

Well  Bred  and  Well  Fed 157 

Equal  to  Any  Task 159 

Showing  Them  Off 162 

Exercise  Necessary  Even  on  Farms 164 

Stallion  for  Farm  Use 168 

Horses  Sell  Best  When  Fat 169 

The  Milk- Yielding  Function   Exemplified 173 

A  Clear  Case  of  Dairy  Type 175 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 

Page 

Dairy  Cows  Thoroughly  Contented  in  Pasture  Field 178 

Matrons  of  the  Dairy  Herd 180 

An  Inexpensive  Covered  Barnyard 182 

Turned  Out  for  Exercise 185 

Silage  One  of  Best  Dairy  Feeds 186 

Picked  Out  for  the  Dairy 189 

Water  Available  All  the  Time 192 

A  Bunch  That  Topped  the  Market 196 

The  Same  Cow,  Side  and  Rear 199 

A  Beef  Steer  of  High  Quality 201 

Rough  Feeders 202 

Selected  for  Baby  Beef 204 

Good  Veal  205 

Baby  Beef    207 

Prime  Steers 209 

Herd  of  Angus  in  Middle  West 210 

Cattle  on  Alfalfa 213 

Familiar  Scene  on  the  Stock  Farm 214 

Feeding  Beef  Cattle  in  the  Open 216 

Champion  Steers 218 

Track  Contrivance  for  Feeding  Cattle 220 

The 'Pasture  Is  Good  and  the  Sheep  Are  Satisfied 224 

Sheep  Range  in  the  Northwest 226 

Temporary  Pastures  Best  for  Sheep 229 

Sheep  on  Rape   Pasture 231 

Out  at  Pasture 234 

Ready  for  Market -  235 

Poor  Way  to  Feed  Sheep 237 

Bunch  of  Hogs  Ready  to  Be  Slaughtered 242 

They  Ate  Much  and  Developed  Rapidly 244 

Very  Sanitary  and  Very  Costly 246 

Legume  Pastures  Ideal  for  Pigs 247 

Plan  of  Grazing  Runs  for  Hogs 249 

Enjoying  the  Charcoal  Box 251 

Getting  Their  Rations  in  a  Portable  Pen 252 

Hogging  Off  the  Corn —  254 

Business  Flock  of  Light  Brahmas 259 

Green  Feed  _.  260 


XVI  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Combination  Hopper  for  Field  or  Yard  Use 261 

Leghorn  Flock  at  Range 263 

Crate  Feeding  for  Fancy  Market 265 

Protected  Feed  Trough 266 

Feed  Hoppers  Filled  from  Alley 266 

The  Double-Yarding  System 268 

Interior  of  Well-Arranged  Poultry  Pen 269 

Feed  Hopper 271 

Feed  and  Work  house  of  Large  Poultry  Farm 272 

Open  Feed  Trough  for  Fowls  at  Range 273 

Mixed  Flock  Eating  Grain 275 

Neat  Silo  for  Long  Service 277 

Harvesting  the  Silage  Corn 280 

Filling  the   Silo 286 

Concrete  Silos 287 

Hauling  Soiling  Crops  to  the  Barn 290 

Wheat  a  Good  Soiling  Crop 292 

Alfalfa  the  Best  Soiling  Crop 293 

Barnyard  Millet  a  Heavy  Yielder 295 

Crop  of  Cowpeas  and  Kafir  Corn 297 

Crimson   Clover  for   Soiling 299 

Either  Too  Much  or  Too  Little 306 

Removal  of  Fertility 312 

How  Farm  Manure  Is  Wasted 314 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  SOIL,  THE  PLANT,  THE  ANIMAL 

How  Nature  Is  Balanced. — The  soil,  the  plant, 
and  the  animal  represent  the  three  great  fields  of 
agricultural  activity.  They  are  dependent  upon  one 
another,  each  giving  to,  or  receiving  from,  the  others 
the  things  vital  to  its  very  existence.  Without  a 
soil,  there  would  be,  of  course,  neither  plant  nor  ani- 
mal life;  without  plants  there  could  be  no  animals; 
and  without  plants  or  animals  there  would  be  a  use- 
less, if  not  a  barren  soil. 

The  three  divisions  of  nature  have  come  in  natural 
order.  First,  the  soil;  then  tiny  plants,  that  were 
succeeded  in  time  by  other  plants  of  a  higher  form, 
to  which  animals  welcomed  themselves,  satisfying 
their  appetites  and  nourishing  their  bodies  with 
what  they  secured  as  food.  Soil  is  food  for  plants, 
the  plant  is  food  for  animals,  and  the  dead  animal  or 
plant  is  food  for  the  soil. 

Plant  Food  a  Small  Part  of  Soil.— The  whole  of 
the  soil  is  not  plant  food — only  certain  elements : 
chemical  elements,  we  call  them.  In  all  nature  there 
are  81  known  distinct  substances  or  elements.  They 
are  called  elements  because  they  represent  distinct 
substances  not  one  of  which  can  be  broken  up  into 
two  or  more  other  distinct  substances.  Common 
table  salt  is  not  an  element,  since  it  can  be  separated 
into  two  elements,  sodium  and  chlorine.  Neither 


FARM    ANIMALS 


sodium  nor  chlorine  can  be  divided  into  two  or  more 
substances,  and  hence  each  is  a  fixed  unit  or  sub- 
stance, known  by  the  term  element. 

Of  the  81  elements  to  be  found  in  the  world  only 
12  enter  in  the  life  of  plants  and  animals.  These  12 
are  very  important  because  they  are  positively 

necessary  to 
plants  or  animals. 
They  are  the  very 
basis  of  life.  The 
body  of  the  ani- 
mal is  composed 
of  the  elements 
found  in  plants, 
yet  the  plant  must 
grow  in  order  to 
make  it  possible 
for  the  animal  to 
grow.  From  the 
air  and  the  soil 
our  cultivated 
plants  gather  the 
chemical  elements 
together,  and  with  them  build  plant  tissue.  By 
means  of  roots,  the  soil  is  searched  in  every  direc- 
tion for  soluble  plant  food,  and  this  is  drawn  into 
the  plant.  The  leaves  in  the  air,  also  at  work,  entice 
into  their  being  the  floating  carbon  which,  trapped 
and  held,  is  mixed,  as  it  were,  by  means  of  cellular 
life  with  the  soil  elements  that  have  been  carried 
into  the  plant  in  the  soil  water.  As  a  result  com- 
pounds are  formed,  the  cells  enlarge  and  increase, 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  ROOT  HAIR 
Soluble  plant  food  is  carried  into  the  plant 
through    root    hairs.      These    are    very    small. 
The   part  pictured  here   is   greatly  magnified. 


THE   SOIL,   THE  PLANT,   THE  ANIMAL  3 

the  plant  becomes  bigger.  It  grows.  In  other  words,. 

the  plant,  by  feeding  on  soil  and  air,  is  enlarged 

through  growth. 

Elements  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life. — The  ele- 
ments that  enter  into  plant  and  animal  growth  are 

the  following: 

Iron,  an  element  of  universal  use.  All  soils  contain 
it. 

Calcium,  a  yellowish  metal,  abundantly  found  in 
limestone  soils. 

Potassium,  a  whitish  metal  and  soft.  It  is  called 
potash  when  united  with  oxygen. 

Sodium,  soft  and  light,  and  when  united  with 
chlorine  forms  ordinary  salt. 

Magnesium,  is  white  in  color  and  a  hard  metal. 

Aluminum,  looks  like  silver  and  is  very  hard. 

Silicon,  a  substance  earthy  in  appearance  and,  next 
to  oxygen,  the  most  abundant  element  in  the 
earth  crust. 

Sulphur,  associated  with  nitrogen  in  the  protein 
compounds. 

Phosphorus,  soft  and  yellow,  often  lacking  in  cul- 
tivated soils. 

Chlorine,  a  colorless  gas  which,  when  united  with 
sodium,  forms  common  table  salt. 

Hydrogen,  the  lightest  known  substance,  a  color- 
less gas.  United  with  oxygen  it  forms  water. 

Oxygen,  a  colorless  and  abundant  gas.  One-fifth  of 
the  air,  one-half  of  the  earth's  crust,  and 
eight-ninths  of  the  water  of  the  world  is 
formed  of  it. 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


Carbon,  a  principal  substance  of  plants  and  animals. 
It  is  found  in  soil  and  air.  Animals  give  it  off 
in  breathing  and  plants  take  it  in  through 
their  leaves.  United  with  oxygen  it  makes 
carbon  dioxide  of  the  air,  the  principal  source 
for  plants  to  get  their  supply. 

Nitrogen,  a  gas  in  its  free  state.  Both  plants  and 
animals  require  it,  and  four-fifths  of  the  air  is 
composed  of  it. 

Elements  are 
Unite  d. — F  e  w  of 
these  elements  ex- 
ist in  the  soil  in  a 
free  state.  Two  or 
more  have  united. 
In  this  association 
they  exist  as  com- 
pounds. Thus  nitro- 
gen, potassium  and 
oxygen  united  form 
potassium  nitrate 
(KNO3)  ;  and  hydro- 
g  e  n  and  oxygen 
united  form  water 
(H2O).  So,  through- 
out the  world,  various  combinations  of  these  ele- 
ments are  found  and  are  known  as  chemical  com- 
pounds. 

Cycle  of  Life. — The  elements  here  described  as 
essential  to  plant  growth  are  needed  by  animals  also. 
But  animals  neither  can  gather  them  from  the  soil 
and  the  air,  nor  would  it  be  possible  for  animals  to 


STOMATA,  OR  LEAF  MOUTHS 
As  seen  under  the  microscope  on  the 
underside  of  the  leaf.  Carbon  through 
the  stomata  is  admitted  to  the  plants  in 
the  form  of  carbon  dioxide  or  carbonic 
acid  gas. 


THE   SOIL,    THE   PLANT,    THE   ANIMAL  5 

use  them  if  they  could.  Obtained  in  the  form  that 
plants  utilize  they  would  be  poison  to  animal  life. 
Nature's  way  is  different.  Plants  grow:  which 
means  they  feed  on  the  element  compounds.  But, 
young  or  mature,  these  same  plants  are  food  for  ani- 
mals. The  elements,  by  means  of  the  plant  cells, 
have  been  worked  up  into  plant  tissue ;  and  as  such 
animal  forms  of  life  are  sustained. 

The  animal  cannot  feed  from  soil  and  air  direct. 


Two  SOURCES  OF  PHOSPHORUS 

In  the  early  days  bones  were  gathered  for  fertilizing.  The  Indians  used 
fish.  Today  the  phosphoric  acid  of  fertilizers  is  secured  largely  from 
ground  bone  or  finely  ground  phosphate  rr 

It  is  necessary  for  the  plant  to  take  these  elements 
and  build  them  into  tissue  first.  On  this  plant  tissue 
the  animal  feeds.  After  the  animal  dies,  with  its 
decay  and  decomposition,  come  the  changes  of 
animal  tissue  back  to  soil  and  air — back  to  the 
original  materials  they  go  again,  as  they  were  before 
the  time  when  captured  by  roots  and  leaves  and 
made  into  plants.  But  once  back  in  soil  and  air  the 
same  story  is  repeated :  another  capture  is  made  by 


6  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

other  roots  or  leaves,  that  new  plant  tissue  may  be 
made  for  another  generation  of  animal  life. 

It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  plant  grows  out  of 
the  soil  and  the  air,  the  animal  out  of  the  plant,  the 
soil  out  of  the  animal.  The  animal  when  living 
contributes  active  supplies,  and  when  dead  both 
humus  and  mineral  ingredients  are  returned  to  the 
soil ;  the  soil  thus  reinforced  favors  the  new  plants 
now  growing  in  it ;  and  the  new  plants,  now  more 
abundantly  nourished,  more  effectively  take  care  of 
the  animals.  Thus  we  have  the  cycle  of  life :  from 
the  plant  is  fed  the  animal ;  from  the  animal  is  sus- 
tained the  soil;  from  the  soil  is  nourished  the  plant. 

The  Farm  and  the  Animals. — The  best  system  of 
agriculture  is  based  upon  good  crops  and  well-bred 
live  stock.  With  these  to  be  possible  the  follow- 
ing propositions  must  always  be  kept  in  mind : 

1.  The  soil  must  be  rich  in  the  simple  elements  of 

plant  food,  that  there  may  be  an  abundance 
of  farm  crops. 

2.  The  farm  crops  must  be  adapted  to  their  cli- 

matic and  soil  environments  so  as  to  produce 
from  the  elements  in  the  soil  the  largest 
growth  of  desirable  plant  life  for  animal 
food. 

3.  Superior  farm  stock  must  be  raised  in  order  to 

produce   cheaply   the   maximum   quantity  of 
high-quality  meat  and  milk  or  wool  and  labor 
with  the  least  expenditure  of  food. 
Supply  of  Plant  Food. — The  farmer,  to  make  agri- 
culture remunerative,  must  adapt  his  work  to  what 
falls  within  these  lines.     He  must  enrich  the  soil. 


THE   SOIL,   THE   PLANT,    THE   ANIMAL  7 

He  must  aid  nature  in  her  efforts  to  maintain  the 
present  supply  of  plant  food,  to  increase  it,  and  to 
make  unavailable  plant  food  available  so  as  to  be 
assimilable  t'o  plants.  After  death  of  plant  or 
animal  the  plant  food  contained  in  these  organic 
forms  is  still  unusable  by  plants  until  decay  and 
decomposition  have  done  their  work.  In  a  like 
manner  the  soil  itself  holds  locked-up  plant  food  in 


POOR  CATTLE  OFTEN  INDICATE  POOR  LAND 

If  soils  have  been  intelligently  tilled  and  manured  they  produce  good 
pasture  and  profitable  crops.  These  in  turn  furnish  appetizing  and  nutritious 
feed  for  the  rapid  development  of  farm  stock.  If  the  grass  is  scanty  live 
stock  will  reflect  the  condition  of  the  land. 

its  storehouses.  The  farmer's  work  is  to  find  the 
key  that  will  unlock  this  plant  food.  Shallow  plow- 
ing, removal  of  organic  matter,  carelessness  in  till- 
age, excessive  water,  bad  bacteria,  all  unite  in  mak- 
ing soils  hard,  dead  and  lifeless,  and  when  so  made 
they  refuse  to  release  their  soil-food  possessions, 
a  condition  that  either  prevents  plant  growth  alto- 
gether; or,  if  not  that  severe,  in  so  lessening  the 
vigor  as  to  give  a  crop  of  small  worth. 


8  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Poor  Grass,  Poor  Cattle. — If  the  plow  be  turned 
loose  in  these  soils,  and  the  land  be  drained  and 
limed  and  carefully  and  intelligently  tilled  and  cul- 
tivated ;  at  the  same  time  if  organic  matter  be  added 
by  means  of  stable  manure,  legumes  or  green  crops, 
the  soils  will  quickly  change  from  their  unproduc- 
tive condition  into  the  other  state  that  produces 
remunerative  crops.  When  the  soil  is  poor  the 


DOUBLE  GOOD  FROM  SOY  BEANS 

This  magnificent  crop  of  soy  beans  will  be  a  blessing  to  both  soil  and 
animals.  They  enrich  the  land  and  provide  a  feeding  crop  of  the  highest 
excellence. 


crops  are  poor;  when  the  crops  are  poor  the 
animals  are  poor;  when  the  animals  are  poor  the 
soils  are  poorly  nourished. 

Soil  Improvement  and  Live  Stock. — The  ideal 
agriculture  maintains  itself.  Every  system  of  farm- 
ing should  consist  of  both  plant  production  and 
animal  feeding.  The  importance  of  this  is  seen 
from  the  following: 

i.  Clover,  cowpeas,  alfalfa  and  other  legumes 
are  needed  to  build  up  the  soil.  These,  together 


THE    SOIL,   THE    PLANT,    THE   ANIMAL 


with  the  cereal  crops,  are  the  very  kinds  of  plants 
we  want  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  They 
should  be  grown,  and  especially  the  legumes,  to  im- 
prove the  soil ;  which  done  there  will  follow  larger 
yields  of  grain,  forage  and  grass  crops  that,  either 
directly  as  money  crops,  or  indirectly  as  feeding 
crops,  will  make  larger  the  total  farm  returns  in 
money  or  production. 


1  1- 

1 

MILK 

FAT  STEER 

FAT  HOG 

WHEAT 

TIMOTHY 

COTTON  MEAL 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Hio.- 

£20.- 

II  25." 

WHAT  THE  FERTILIZING  ELEMENTS  ARE  WORTH 

The  drawing  shows  the  money  value  of  the  fertilizing  materials  of  several 
farm  products  in  a  ton  of  each  substance.  These  should  be  considered  in 
connection  with  the  commercial  worth  of  each  product. 

2.  Natural  manures  and  fertilizers  are  needed  for 
improving  the  soil.  The  more  live  stock  there  is 
on  each  farm  the  greater  will  be  the  quantity  of 
manure  made,  and  hence  a  less  amount  of  pur- 
chased fertilizers  will  be  required.  The  fertilizer 
bill  is  a  great  farm  tax.  A  part  of  it  Would  be  un- 
necessary *f  business-like  farming  were  followed.  It 
should  be  a  set  policy  to  purchase  as  much  of  the 


10 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


fertilizers  as  possible  in  the  form  of  feeding  stuffs. 
Take  a  dollar  and  get  cottonseed  meal,  gluten,  bran 
or  tankage,  but  instead  of  applying  these  direct  to 
the  soil  as  sources  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and 
potassium,  first  feed  them  to  live  stock  to  get  the 


CONVERTING  RAW  MATERIAL  INTO  FINISHED  PRODUCTS 

Dairy  cows  are  excellent  machines   for  converting  the  rough   products   of 
the  farm  into  human  food. 

value  of  the  organized  nature  of  the  elements  as 
feed.  Then,  this  accomplished,  the  resulting 
manure  will  provide  plant  food  for  the  land. 

The  important  difference  between  plant  food  or 
fertilizers  and  animal  food  or  plants  is  in  the  fact 
that  plants  take  the  unorganized  chemical  elements 
and  manufacture  or  build  or  organize  them  into 
living  tissue,  which  is  the  plant  or  the  fruit  of  the 


THE   SOIL,    THE   PLANT,    THE   ANIMAL  II 

plant,  and  as  such  is  the  food  of  the  animal.  Feed 
the  plant  or  its  fruits  to  live  stock  and  get  meat  or 
wool  or  milk  or  labor  from  the  organized  tissue; 
then  let  the  animals  return  these,  now  disorganized 
and  broken  up,  back  to  the  soil,  in  manure  or  ex- 
crement, so  as  to  get  a  new  growth  of  plants.  By 
letting  live  stock  prepare  the  plant  food  you  gain 
in  both  ways. 

3.  The  animal  changes  raw  materials  into  fin- 
ished products.  The  feeder  can  take  corn,  grass,  clover, 
bran,  gluten  and  other  feeding  stuffs  and  from  them 
compound  balanced  rations  for  all  classes  of  live 
stock.  These  are  simply  raw  materials,  and  as 
such  command  low  prices  if  placed  on  the  markets 
of  the  world.  An  increased  value  follows  their 
change  into,  a  finished  product.  A  dairy  cow,  fed  a 
mixture  of  25  pounds  of  corn  stover,  clover  hay, 
wheat  bran  and  gluten,  worth  a  few  cents,  will 
produce  butter  or  milk  worth  many  cents.  The  in- 
creased value  is  the  result  of  the  change  from  the 
form  of  raw  materials  into  a  finished  product  at 
once  usable  as  food  for  human  beings. 


CHAPTER  II 


WHAT  FEEDING  STUFFS  CONTAIN 

How  Plants  Grow. — Plants  get  their  food  from 
the  soil  and  the  air.  When  supplied  abundantly 
with  food,  and  surrounded  by  favorable  conditions 
like  warmth,  moisture,  sunlight  and  an  agreeable 
soil  free  of  weeds  and  insect  enemies,  they  grow 


How  AN  ANIMAL  CELL  DIVIDES 

Here  is  shown  nuclear  and  cell  division.  The  letters  A,  B  and  C  indicate 
the  successive  stages.  The  region  of  the  nucleus  is  a;  cytoplasm  or  pro- 
toplasm, b;  and  the  beginnings  of  the  daughter  nuclei,  c.  The  letter  d  shows 
how  the  original  cell  has  divided  internally  into  two,  each  with  a  large 
nucleus.  (After  Guignard.) 

rapidly  and  produce  bountifully.  Their  method  of 
using  food  is  much  different  from  that  of  animals; 
and  their  digestive  system  is  of  another  order. 

Plant  Cells. — A  plant  is  formed  of  myriads  of 
cells.  These  increase  in  numbers  as  the  plant 
grows  larger.  Stated  in  a  simple  way,  the  cell  is  an 
inclosed  sac  within  whose  walls  are  the  juices  and 
other  substances  required  for  growth  and  develop- 

12 


WHAT   FEEDING   STUFFS    CONTAIN  13 

ment.  The  cell  walls  are  made  up  of  a  woody  sub- 
stance called  cellulose.  In  green  and  growing 
plants  this  cellulose  is  thin  and  tender,  but  as  the 
plant  matures  it  becomes  hard  and  woody. 

The  roots,  trunk,  leaves  and  all  other  parts  of  the 
plant  are  formed  of  cells.  Plant  food  in  the  soil  -is 
made  soluble  in  soil  moisture,  and  by  means  of  the 
cells  comprising  the  roots  the  soluble  substances 
are  sucked  in  and  carried  in  water  to  all  parts  of 
the  plant.  The  process  by  which  this  is  done  is 
known  as  osmosis.  The  soluble  plant  food  left  in 
the  cells  as  the  water  passes  along  is  met  by  the 
carbon  that  has  also  been  passed  into  the  cells,  not 
through  the  roots,  however,  but  through  the  leaves, 
and  thus  brought  together  all  building  materials  are 
at  hand  for  the  manufacture  of  the  plant  compounds. 
The  master  builder  is  the  protoplasm  tucked  away 
in  the  cells.  No  one  knows  just  what  protoplasm 
is,  but  it  represents  life,  without  which  there  could 
be  no  growth. 

Building  Plant  Tissue. — The  building  work  is 
done  in  the  plant  cells,  within  whose  tiny  walls  the 
compounds  are  formed.  These  cells  within  which 
this  process  is  going  on  are  either  enlarged  them- 
selves or  else  the  compounds  are  used  for  making 
new  cells.  Every  live,  active  cell  contains  proto- 
plasm, the  life  principle.  Herein  is  contained  the 
vital  spark  that  makes  all  growth  possible. 

Starch. — When  the  soluble  soil  material  or  plant 
food  has  been  carried  up  through  the  long  channel  of 
cells  and  reaches  the  leaves,  it  is  brought  in  contact 
with  the  carbon  dioxide  that  has  been  pulled  into 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


the  leaf  through  the  little  mouths  on  the  undersides 
of  the  leaves.  There  these  various  compounds  are 
upset  and  disintegrated  through  the  action  of  heat, 
sunlight,  protoplasm  and  chlorophyll,  with  the  result 
that  a  grain  of  starch  is  made  out  of  the  water  and 


CARBONIC  ACID 


CARBONIC  ACID 


UNDERSIDE  OF  A  LEAF 

When  studied  under  the  microscope  the  underside  of  a  leaf  appears  as 
sketched  above.  The  letter  a  shows. the  stomata  or  mouths,  and  b  the  cells 
of  the  leaf. 

carbonic  acid  gas.  Some  of  these  starch  grains  are 
changed  by  protoplasm  into  sugar,  which,  being 
readily  soluble,  soon  is  transferred  by  diffusion  from 
cell  to  cell  and  left  in  those  cells  that  need  it  the 
most. 

How  Plants  Use  Starch. — Starch  is  not  the  life 
substance  of  the  plant,  but  helps  to  make  it.    It  is 


WHAT    FEEDING    STUFFS   CONTAIN 


necessary,  because  not  only  more  life  substance  is 
required  as  the  plant  grows  larger,  but  because  in 
one  kind  of  work  that  the  plant  does  some  of  the 
life  substance  is  used  up.  Not  all  of  the  starch, 
therefore,  remains  as  originally  formed;  some  of  it 
is  assimilated  along  with  other  foods  taken  up  by 
the  roots,  and  living  material  is  made. 

Protein.—  The 
formation  of  the 
protein  constit- 
uents is  more  com- 
plexthan  the 
formation  of 
starch.  In  a  gen- 
eral way  it  may  be 
said  that  starch  or 
some  starch  deriva- 
tive is  united  in  the 
cells  with  nitrates 
and  sulphur  that 

have   been   brought  STARCH  CELLS 

into  the  plant  from 
the  soil.  The  liv- 
ing matter,  or  protoplasm,  then  breaks  up  the 
nitrates  in  the  active  cells,  uniting  them  in  some 
way  with  starch,  with  the  result  that  a  protein  com- 
pound is  formed. 

Fat  or  Oil. — Oil  is  made  out  of  the  same  chemical 
elements  that  enter  into  the  building  of  starch 
grains.  Both  are  formed  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen.  In  the  oil  compounds  there  is  a  larger 


This  is  the  way  the  starch  cells  from  potato 
tubers  look  when  seen  under  the  microscope. 


i6 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


number  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  units  in  pro- 
portion to  the  oxygen  than  in  the  case  of  starch. 
While  all  plants  contain  some  oil  or  fat  in  their 
woody  tissue,  the  great  bulk  of  it  is  deposited  in  the 
seed  or  the  fruit. 

Protein  differs  in  composition  from  oil  or  starch 

in  having  nitro- 
gen and  sulphur 
in  addition  to  car- 
bon, hydrogen  and 
oxygen. 

What  Plant 
Building  Means. 
Before  the  simple 
elements  are 
taken  into  the 
plant  they  are  of 
little  value.  No 
animal  can  use 
them  as  food; 
they  cannot  be 
burned  to  furnish 
heat ;  and  they 
store  up  no  en- 
ergy to  carry  on 
any  of  the  world's 
work.  What  a 
change  the  plant 

makes  of  them !  Without  value  in  soil  and  air,  these 
elements  when  taken  into  the  plant  and  built  into 
tissue  at  once  become  of  vast  importance.  They  be- 
come the  source  of  all  animal  food,  and,  constructed 


LEAF  CELLS 

How    the    cells    from    the    interior    of    a    leaf 
look  when  seen  under  the  microscope. 


WHAT   FEEDING   STUFFS   CONTAIN 


into  vegetable  life,  supply  the  human  race  with  most 
of  the  essential  things  for  comfort,  life  and  food. 

Ash  or  Mineral  Materials. — Starch,  oil  and  pro- 
tein are  not  the  only  constituents  found  in  plants; 
ash  or  mineral  matter  is  found  in  every  form  of 
plant  life.  This  is  observed  when  any  vegetable 
material  has  been  burned.  The  organized  condition 


FEEDING  STUFF 

TOTAL  POUNDS  OF  WATER  IN  100  POUNDS  OF 

SUBSTANCE 

5    10   15  20  25  30  35  40       50        60        70 

80       90      100 

GREEN  CORN 
CORN  SILAGE 
CORN  STOVER.FIELD  CURED 
DENT  CORN 
PASTURE  GRASS 
RED  CLOVER 
RED  CLOVER  HAY 
TURNIP 
WHEAT,  GREEN 
WHEAT  STRAW 
WHEAT,  GRAIN  OF 
WHEAT  BRAN 
APPLES 
POTATOES 

Esmmamssssm 

— 

5 

GROWING  PLANTS  CONTAIN  MUCH  WATER 

Several  common  feeding  stuffs  are  here  compared  to  show  the  large  quan- 
tities of  water  they  contain.  Note  the  change  when  harvested  and  cured 
as  dry  provenders. 

is  destroyed,  but  the  ash  remains.  In  green  plants 
or  fodder  or  the  vegetables  the  minerals  are  always 
at  hand,  and  when  eaten  by  man  or  beast  they  go 
to  form  bone,  teeth  and  other  tissue  structures  of 
the  body.  In  most  feeding  stuffs  sodium  and 
chlorine  are  lacking,  but  the  deficiency  is  corrected 
by  the  artificial  supply  of  common  salt.  Poor  teeth, 
small  and  weak  bones  in  children  and  domestic 
animals  result  when  an  insufficient  amount  of  ash 


IS 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


CARBONIC    ACID 
OXYGEN 


or  mineral  material  is  furnished  in  the  food.  A 
variety  of  food,  including  coarse  fodders  and  the 
legumes,  makes  it  possible  to  supply  the  mineral 

materials  in  abun- 
dance. 

Water  is  found  in 
all  plants,  even  in 
those  dead  and  air- 

__ 

dry.  Young  grow- 
ing plants  contain 
much,  often  three- 
fourths  or  more  of 
their  weight.  Do 
you  wonder  now 
why  water  in  the  soil 
is  so  important  for 
the  production  of 
good  crops  ?  The 
plant  not  only  must 
have  the  water,  but 
the  only  way  it  can 
make  use  of  it  is  to 
carry  it  into  the 
plant  through  the 
roots. 

Water  serves  as  a 
HOW  THE  SAP  CURRENTS  MOVE  carrier  of  plant  food 

The    unmanufactured    sap    current    taken  through   the   TOOtS   to 
into  the  plant  through  the  roots  moves  up- 

ward,    while    the    manufactured    product    of  CVCry      part      OI      the 

the  leaves   moves   downward.  _ 

plant.     It   is   to   the 

plant  what  blood  is  to  the  animal.  Some  people 
think  that  dew  or  rain  on  the  leaves  is  of  value  to 


WATER    AND 
MINERALS 


WHAT   FEEDING  STUFFS   CONTAIN  IQ 

the  plant.  But  is  it?  The  mission  of  the  water 
is  to  dissolve  plant  food  in  the  soil  and  when  in 
solution  to  get  it  into  the  plant.  Surely  a  heavy 
dew  on  a  crop  of  corn  dissolves  no  plant  food  in 
the  earth,  and  certainly  carries  none  into  the  plant. 
Dew,  then,  is  not  a  means  of  feeding  the  plant. 
What  water  the  plant  gets  is  obtained,  as  has  been 
explained,  from  the  soil  by  means  of  the  roots. 

Crude  Fiber  serves  as  a  framework  of  the  plant. 
It  is  to  the  plant  what  bones  and  skeleton  are  to 
the  animal.  It  is  made  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  the  same  elements  that  go  to  form  starch. 
Immature  and  young  plants  are  tender  because  the 
crude  fiber  is  tender;  as  the  plant  matures,  the  fiber 
hardens  and  toughens,  as  we  find  it  in  hay  and 
corn  stover  and  trees. 

Grouping    the    Plant    Constituents. — When    the 
chemist   analyzes   plants   he   finds   many  kinds   of 
compounds.     He  finds  that  while  there  is  a  physical 
difference,    the    chemical    elements    are    invariably 
united  in  definite  combinations  producing  definite 
compounds.    For  the  sake  of  convenience  the  plant's 
constituents  may  be  grouped  as  follows : 
I.    Ash. 
II.     Water. 

III.  Protein  or  compounds  containing  nitrogen. 

IV.  Nitrogen-free    compounds    or    compounds 

containing  no  nitrogen. 

1.  Starch. 

2.  Crude  fiber. 

3.  Sugar,  gums,  etc. 
V.     Ether  extract,  or  oil  or  fat. 


2O  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

What  the  Plant  Has  Done. — The  relation  between 
soil  and  plant  is  now  apparent.  The  soil  elements 
have  been  taken  into  the  plant.  From  now  on  they 
lose  their  individual  identity  and,  united  in  various 
ways,  they  now  become  organized  compounds. 
They  are  no  longer  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
but  starch  or  sugar,  or  oil ;  or,  if  nitrogen  and  sul- 
phur are  added,  they  become  protein  compounds. 
The  plant  has  now  fulfilled  its  destiny  and  is  ready 
to  be  used  as  food  for  the  support  of  animal  life. 

Elements  and  Their  Symbols. — For  the  sake  of 
brevity  the  symbols  or  letters  representing  the 
various  agricultural  elements  are  often  used,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  them 
the  list  below  is  given: 

O — Oxygen  P — Phosphorus 

H — Hydrogen  K — Potassium 

N — Nitrogen  Mg — Magnesium 

C — Carbon  Al — Aluminum 

Cl — Chlorine  Fe— Iron 

Na — Sodium  Si — Silicon 

S — Sulphur  Ca — Calcium 


CHAPTER  III 
HOW  FOOD  IS  DIGESTED 

Making  Ready  for  Digestion. — Digestion  is  more 
than  chewing"  and  swallowing.  Both  of  these  are 
important,  but  they  are  only  the  beginning  of  a 
complicated  act  that  has  to  do  with  every  con- 
stituent taken  into  the  mouth  as  food,  regardless 
of  its  nature,  whether  of  vegetable  or  animal  origin. 
Before  the  several  ingredients  composing  the  plant 
can  be  used  as  food  they  must  be  prepared  for  ab- 
sorption into  the  system  of  the  animal.  This  prep- 
aration takes  place  in  the  mouth,  the  oesophagus 
tube,  the  stomach  and  the  intestines.  Throughout 
the  process  various  secretions  are  supplied  to  mak& 
assimilation  and  absorption  into  the  system  pos- 
sible. 

What  Is  Done  in  the  Mouth. — When  food  is 
taken  into  the  mouth,  it  is  masticated  by  the  teeth. 
While  this  is  going  on  there  are  poured  into  the 
mouth  large  quantities  of  saliva,  which  soften  and 
soak  the  foods  and  start  digestion.  The  active 
principle  of  saliva  is  a  soluble  ferment  called  ptyalin 
that  converts  the  starch  into  sugar.  One  authority 
states  that  the  saliva  of  a  horse  will  convert  raw 
starch  into  sugar  in  15  minutes.  The  organic  mat- 
ter contained  in  this  secretion  is  formed  by  the  cells 
comprising  the  structure  of  the  salivary  glands. 

A  large  amount  of  saliva  is  soaked  up  by  the  food. 
This  is  often  expressed  as  being  as  much  as  one- 

21 


22  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

tenth  of  the  weight  of  the  animal.  Colin  states  that 
84  pounds  is  secreted  by  the  horse  and  112  pounds 
by  the  cow  in  a  single  day.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  nature  of  the  food  greatly  influences  the  flow, 
although  the  control  rests  with  the  nervous  system. 
The  ferment  of  the  saliva  is  inactive  in  young 
animals.  It  bears  a  close  relationship  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  teeth.  Starchy  food,  therefore,  is 
not  desirable  for  newly  born  farm  animals  nor  for 
the  human  young.  While  bread,  potatoes  and  other 
soft  food  of  a  starchy  nature  are  frequently,  if  not 
commonly,  given  to  children,  it  can  be  only  to  their 
hurt,  for  the  reason  the  teeth  slowly  develop,  thus 
failing  to  provide  the  ferment  to  prepare  the 
starches  for  digestion,  although  moisture  is 
naturally  secreted  by  the  glands. 

From  Mouth  to  Stomach. — The  food,  after  being 
ground  and  mixed  with  the  saliva,  is  forwarded  to 
the  stomach.  Horses,  hogs  and  humans  have  a 
single  stomach  compartment,  while  cows,  sheep  and 
goats  have  a  different  arrangement,  embodying  four 
divisions.  With  the  former  the  stomach  is  com- 
paratively simple.  It  is  a  single  sac  not  capable  of 
holding  a  large  quantity  at  one  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  ruminants,  the  family  to  which  cattle  and 
sheep  belong,  the  stomach  is  large,  and  capable  of  con- 
siderable extension.  The  capacity  of  the  stomach  of  the 
average  horse  runs  from  three  to  four  gallons,  and 
of  the  cow  to  as  much  as  50  gallons  or  more. 

The  Compartments  of  the  Cow's  Stomach  are 
known  as  the  rumen,  or  paunch,  the  reticulum,  the 


HOW    FOOD   IS   DIGESTED 


omasum,  and  the  abomasum.  The  last  is  the  true 
digestive  stomach,  the  others  are  largely  storage 
places  for  the  saliva-mixed  food.  The  first  of  these 
compartments  is  very  decidedly  a  storing  place 
where  the  food  is  placed  until  it  is  thrown  back  to 


STOMACH    OF    RUMINANT 

The  four  main  divisions  of  the  ruminant's  stomach  are  pictured  here.  The 
first  three  divisions  are  the  storehouses  for  food  until  it  is  prepared  for  the 
fourth  or  true  stomach. 


the  mouth  for  further  mastication.  This  act,  or 
cud  chewing,  refers  to  rechewing  the  food  so  as 
to  get  it  finer  and  better  ground  for  digestion.  The 
food,  on  leaving  the  mouth  the  second  time,  is 
passed  through  the  rumen  into  the  reticulum,  then 
to  the  omasum  and  finally  into  the  abomasum,  or 
true  stomach,  where  digestion  is  continued. 

In  the  first  compartment,  or  rumen,  a  churning 
process  is  carried  on  continually.  Some  think  this 
division  of  the  stomach  is  never  wholly  empty.  An 
alkaline  fluid  is  furnished  here,  as  is  the  case  also 


24  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

i 

in  the  second  compartment.  Food  in  the  third  com- 
partment is  subjected  to  a  squeeze  which  dries  it, 
forcing  the  extracted  juices  into  the  true  stomach 
or  fourth  compartment. 

Stomach  Secretion.— The  stomach  of  every  class 
of  animals  is  lined  by  two  kinds  of  membrane :  one, 
similar  in  nature  to  the  lining  of  the  oesophagus 
tube,  and  the  other  that  admits  of  secretion.  These 
do  not  form  a  double  coat  but  one  blends  into  the 
other.  The  section  giving  off  the  secretion  is 
known  as  the  villous  coat.  It  extends  to  the  poste- 
rior end,  and  to  the  point  where  the  small  intestine 
joins  with  the  stomach. 

While  in  the  stomach,  the  saliva  continues  the 
digestion  of  the  starchy  matter,  and  is  assisted  by 
the  gastric  juice  that  pours  in  from  the  stomach  lining. 
This  secretion  has  three  constituents,  acid,  rennet  and 
pepsin.  The  pepsin  is  a  ferment,  its  work  being  to 
split  up  the  protein  compounds.  The  rennet  is  also 
a  ferment,  which  assists  in  the  digestion  of  milk. 
There  is  much  of  this  secretion  in  calves.  The 
gastric  juice  converts  the  protein  substances  into 
peptones. 

The  mucus  glands  of  the  stomach  secrete  mucin, 
a  substance  that  lines  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  at  all 
times. 

From  Stomach  to  Intestines. — The  constant 
churning  movement  in  the  stomach  causes  the  food 
to  travel  from  the  entrance  to  the  exit,  the  small 
intestine.  Up  to  this  time  there  has  been  no  ab- 
sorption of  the  food  into  the  body.  Nor  is  diges- 


HOW   FOOD  IS  DIGESTED  25 

tion  yet  complete.  When  the  partly  digested  ma- 
terial or  chyme  leaves  the  stomach  it  passes  into 
the  duodenum,  one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  small 
intestine,  and  is  subjected  to  further  action  of  other 
digestive  juices.  Here  the  bile,  the  pancreatic  and 
intestinal  juices  are  admitted  to  complete  the  work. 
The  bile,  dark  green  or  brownish  in  color,  is  se- 
creted by  the  liver  and  acts  in  conjunction  with  the 


BLOOD  PLASMA 

This  shows  blood  plasma  passing  out  of  the   capillaries  to  feed  the  cells. 
It  is  there  taken  up  by  the  lymph  vessel. 

pancreatic  juice.  The  pancreatic  juice,  alkaline  and 
watery,  is  secreted  by  the  pancreas,  or  "sweet 
bread."  The  bile  acts  as  a  bowel  regulator  when 
the  liver  is  active  and  healthy.  The  pancreatic  juice 
has  a  treble  function :  it  is  able  to  change  starch  into 
sugar,  protein  into  peptones,  and  the  oils  into  fatty 
acids.  The  intestinal  juices  perform  similar  work. 
The  Two  Intestines  are  not  only  important  for 
storage  purposes,  but  in  them,  particularly  the 


26 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


smaller,  the  real  digestive  act,  the  absorption  of  the 
nutriment  in  the  food  by  the  blood,  takes  place. 
Up  to  this  point,  although  the  fluids  have  been  at 
work,  there  has  been  little  if  any  active  absorption 
into  the  system.  The  food  up  to  now  is  in 
a  sense  outside  the  body;  and  there  is  no  entrance 
or  opening  for  it  to  get  into  the  body,  save  through 
the  cells  that  line  this  part  of  the  digestive  tract. 
In  a  way  similar  to  that  by  which  soluble  plant  food 

is  admitted  into  the 
plant  roots  through 
the  cell  walls,  so  is 
the  digested  food, 
after  it  has  been 
broken  up  and  made 
soluble,  absorbed 
through  the  cell 
walls  of  the  intes- 
tines into  the  blood 
system  of  the  ani- 
mal. 

From  Intestines  to 
food 
it  is  ad- 
mitted either  to  the 
capillaries  of  the  blood  or  to  the  lymphatic  system. 
If  collected  by  the  capillaries  the  absorbed  food 
is  carried  to  the  portal  vein,  thence  to  the  liver 
and  finally  to  the  heart,  where  it  is  poured  with 
the  blue  blood  as  it  is  brought  in  from  all  parts 
of  the  body.  At  this  point  the  blood  contains 


a 


"a  mv     I 

VILLI    CELLS 

Section    of    intestine    showing    villi.      The    Blood 

parts    are    as   follows:   a,   arteries;    b,   villi; 
c,   villi   cut  open   to  show   lacteal    (/),   and     jg 
blood    tubes;    d,    glands;    m,    muscle;    v, 
veins;   and  w,  wall   of  intestine. 


HOW   FOOD   IS  DIGESTED  2J 

both  nutriment  and  the  waste  or  broken-down  mat- 
ter of  the  body.  The  part  of  the  absorbed  food 
that  enters  into  the  lymphatic  system  is  carried  to 
the  thoracic  duct,  which  extends  along  the  spinal 
column,  and  enters  one  of  the  main  blood  vessels. 
The  lymph  is  blood  without  the  red  blood  corpuscles. 
It  wanders  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  surrounds  all 
the  cells  in  all  the  tissues  and  carries  to  the  cells  the 
very  kind  of  food  they  most  need. 

Once  the  food  gets  into  the  circulatory  system  it 
takes  the  regular  course  of  the  blood.  In  impure 
blood  it  goes  to  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart, 
then  to  the  right  ventricle.  This  in  turn  contracts 
and  forces  the  blood  into  the  lungs,  where  oxygen 
is  taken  on  and  carbonic  acid  gas  and  other  impu- 
rities are  given  off.  From  the  lungs  the  blood,  now 
red  and  pure,  passes  into  the  left  auricle,  and  thence 
into  the  left  ventricle,  from  which  it  is  forced  into 
the  aorta,  to  be  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

Villi  Cells. — The  digested  food  in  the  intestines  is 
gathered  in  by  the  villi  cells.  The  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  small  intestines  possesses  highly 
differentiated  structures  that  appear  as  minute 
fingers.  These  tiny,  hair-like  projectiles  reach  into 
the  intestinal  mass  for  sugar,  peptones  and  fatty 
acids,  which  they  transfer,  through  the  cells,  into 
the  absorbent  vessels  or  lymphs  that  in  turn  empty 
the  assimilated  stores  of  food  into  larger  and  still 
larger  vessels.  This  process  continues  until  the 
whole  of  the  nutritive  fluid  is  collected  in  the  cir- 
culatory system  to  become  the  very  basis  of  the 
blood. 


20  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Respiration. — When  the  impure  blood  passes 
through  the  lungs,  carbonic  acid  gas  and  other 
impurities  are  held  back  and  in  breathing  are  ex- 
haled and  thrown  out  of  the  system.  At  the  same 
time  oxygen  is  taken  in  with'  great  greediness  by 
the  cells  of  the  blood,  which  distribute  it  where 
needed  in  all  parts  of  the  body.  When  plants  are 
growing,  oxygen  is  released  and  thrown  into  the 


DISTRIBUTION  or  CAPILLARIES 

JN  POSTERIOR   EXTREMITIES, 


RIGHT 
VENTRICL" 


How  THE  BLOOD  CIRCULATES  THROUGH  THE  BODY 


The  blood  is  collected  from  the  body  and  delivered  into  the  right  auricle, 
which  on  contracting,  forces  the  blood  into  the  right  ventricle;  this  in  turn 
contracts  and  forces  the  blood  into  the  lungs,  where  oxygen  is  taken  on  and 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  other  impurities  are  thrown  off.  From  the  lungs  the 
blood  is  returned  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart  and  distributed  through  arteries 
and  capillaries  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 


air.  At  the  same  time,  by  means  of  leaves,  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  is  drawn  in  and  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  plant  compounds.  This  was  got  from 
the  air.  The  animal,  in  performing  its  functions 
and  in  building  its  tissue,  inhales  oxygen  from,  and 
exhales  carbon  dioxide  into,  the  air.  Thus  it  is  that 
animals  use  what  is  waste  to  the  plant  and  the 
plants  use  what  is  poison  to  the  animal. 


CHAPTER  IV 
USING  FEEDS  FOR  BEST  RESULTS 

Foods  Must  be  Appetizing. — Plants  are  most 
liked  when  young  and  tender.  They  are  then  agree- 
able to  the  taste  and  induce  a  maximum  consump- 
tion. At  this  stage  of  growth  little  woody  tissue 
has  developed,  the  juices  are  abundant,  the  sub- 
stances are  freely  acted  upon  by  the  secretions,  and 


CORN  IN  GOOD  SHOCKS 

Corn  may  be  preserved  for  a  time  in  shocks  in  the  field.  If  left  until 
winter,  rains  and  snows  cause  rapid  deterioration  and  great  loss  of  feeding 
value. 

the  largest  amount  of  nutriment  is  absorbed  into 
the  system.     Feeds  that  are  unappetizing  and  dis- 


3O  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

agreeable  to  smell  or  taste  will  be  rejected,  or  if 
eaten  at  all  will  be  only  to  satisfy  hunger.  The  good 
feeder  endeavors  to  tempt  the  taste  and  increase  the 
appetite  of  his  animals,  that  the  largest  possible 
consumption  of  food  may  be  had  to  secure  the 
quickest  and  largest  returns. 


SOME  GRADES  AND  SOME  SCRUBS 

Scrub  animals  as  a  rule  are  not  good  feeders.       Pure-bred  animals  render 
a  much  better  account  of  what  they  eat. 

Since  growth  can  result  only  from  the  food  con- 
sumed, it  follows  as  an  undisputed  conclusion  that 
light  feeding  will  retard  development.  Hence,  not 
only  good  food  must  be  provided,  but  much  food 
also.  Many  a  feeder  owes  his  success  to  his  ability 
to  get  before  his  animal  a  bountiful  ration  that  is 
both  wholesome  and  nutritious.  Hunger  may  make 


USING  FEEDS  FOR  BEST  RESULTS          3! 

his  animals  partake  of  almost  any  kind  of  food,  but 
nothing  he  can  do  will  induce  these  same  animals 
to  eat  a  disagreeable  or  unappetizing  food  heartily 
enough  to  get  a  response  much  beyond  their  main- 
tenance needs.  Growth  and  production  are  invaria- 
bly associated  with  well-flavored  and  appetizing 
food,  even  though  they  add  nothing  to  the  energy 
or  nutritive  value  of  the  food. 

Digestibility  Little  Influenced  by  Quantity. — 
Ordinarily  digestion  is  but  slightly  influenced  by 
big  appetites.  Heavy  eaters  are  usually  the  most 
profitable  animals.  Fed  to  their  full  capacity  they 
give  as  good  an  account  of  their  food  as  when  lim- 
ited to  half  feeds.  Food  is  digested  and  assimilated 
just  as  completely  in  full  as  in  half-filled  stomachs. 
The  most  rapid  growth,  or  the  largest  milk  flow,  is 
to  be  had  when  the  animal  is  permitted  to  eat  to  its 
full  capacity ;  and  this  is  another  reason  why  the  ration 
must  be  palatable  and  attractive  to  taste  and  smell. 

The  Individual  Character  of  the  Animal  undoubt- 
edly affects  the  proportion  digested.  Armsby  has 
found  that  a  pure-bred  animal  of  superior  breeding 
renders  a  better  account  of  its  food  than  a  scrub. 
Of  two  animals  supplied  with  the  same  feed,  one 
will  often  persistently  digest  a  larger  proportion 
than  the  other.  Often  very  greedy  eaters  show  very 
poor  fattening  qualities. 

In  young  animals  the  digestive  power  is  appar- 
ently equal  to  animals  of  mature  age. 

Digestibility  Decreases  as  Plants  Mature. — All 
classes  of  plants  show  a  striking  diminution  in 


32  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

digestibility  as  they  approach  maturity,  and  this  is 
very  equally  spread  over  all  the  constituents.  The 
composition  varies  also,  and  for  the  same  reason. 
Hence,  no  fixed  nutritive  value  can  be  ascribed  to 
the  hay  and  fodder  crops  except  in  a  general  way. 
The  young  plant  is  always  the  most  nutritious.  The 
superior  fattening  quality  of  a  pasture,  as  compared 


MAKING  GOOD  HAY  Is  A  FINE  ART 

Hay  often  is  improperly  made.  If  cut  late  it  is  less  nutritious  and  appetiz- 
ing. If  soaked  with  rains,  or  the  finer  parts  are  lost  by  bad  treatment,  the 
feeding  value  will  be  decreased. 

with  that  of  the  hay  made  from  it,  is  clearly  due  to 
the  fact  that  on  land  continuously  grazed  the  animal 
is  fed  entirely  on  young  forage,  while  hay  will 
largely  consist  of  the  mature  or  nearly  matured 
plants.  If  hay  making  is  carefully  carried  out  in 
good  weather  so  the  finer  parts  are  not  lost  by  bad 
treatment,  or  the  soluble  matter  is  not  washed  out  by 
rain,  the  digestibility  will  not  be  diminished  consid- 
erably. 


USING  FEEDS  FOR  BEST  RESULTS          33 

Every  kind  of  hay  should  be  cured  in  the  shock 
before  being  placed  in  the  mow;  otherwise  it  may 
become  brown  by  heating  and  the  digestibility  of  the 
protein  and  soluble  carbohydrates  be  diminished. 

Early  cut  hay  is  richer  in  protein  and  contains 
less  crude  fiber  than  that  cut  late.  The  increased 
weight,  due  to  the  longer  growing  period,  chiefly 
develops  cellulose.  As  the  plant  ripens  the  more 
nutritious  compounds  move  into  the  seed,  and  leave 
the  food  part  of  hay  less  valuable.  The  best  time 
for  cutting  hay  is  when  the  plants  are  in  blossom; 
the  nutritious  compounds  at  this  time  are  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  plants,  and  there  is  cor- 
respondingly less  woody  tissue. 

Shall  Grain  Be  Ground? — Many  grain  feeds  in- 
crease their  digestibility  if  they  are  ground.  Corn, 
oats,  wheat  and  other  grains  often  are  so  hard  that 
if  passed  into  the  stomach  without  mastication  the 
digestive  juices  fail  to  do  their  full  duty.  While  this 
is  a  true  and  an  unfortunate  condition,  it  does  not 
always  follow  that  it  is  good  business  management 
to  grind  these  feeds.  Experiments  show  that  when 
corn,  for  instance,  is  ground  the  returns  are  in- 
creased from  8  to  15  per  cent;  yet  the  labor  of  haul- 
ing to  and  from  the  mill  or  of  grinding  the  grain  at 
home  may  mean  a  loss  in  the  end. 

This  factor  must  be  determined  by  each  individ- 
ual, for  no  cut-and-dried  rule  will  apply.  The  cus- 
tom of  following  cattle  and  horses  with  pigs  to  pick 
up  the  undigested  grain  or  other  food  'is  both  wise 
and  profitable,  and  satisfactorily  meets  this  condi- 
tion. 


34 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


Steaming  and  Cooking  Food. — A  great  many  de- 
vices have  been  placed  on  the  market  for  the  prep- 
aration of  feeding  stuffs  for  live  stock.  The  labor 
and  expense  connected  with  the  practice  is  usually 
unwarranted  and  uneconomical. 

What  Most  Influences  Digestion. — Feeding  farm 
stock  is  a  gentle  art.  The  old  adage,  "the  hand  of 
the  master  fattens  the  flock/'  is  a  clear  expression 
of  the  intimate  relation  that  should  exist  between 


FROM  A  GRAIN  OF  WHEAT 

Traverse  section  near  the  outside  of  a  wheat  grain.     The  letters  show  the 
llowing:  a,  the  hus 
ules;  c,  starch  cells. 


following:  a,  the  husk    (pericarp,  integuments);  b,  cells  with  protein  gran 
(After  Tschirch.) 


the  feeder  and  the  animals  in  his  charge.  Two  men 
may  provide  the  same  feed  for  two  lots  of  live  stock, 
similar  in  kind,  and  far  different  results  will  be  ob- 
tained at  the  end  of  a  given  period.  The  one  studies 
his  individual  animals,  knows  each  as  if  by  name, 
takes  an  interest  in  its  progress,  endeavors  at  all 
times  to  help  in  case  of  mishap,  and  actually  en- 
courages, as  if  to  induce  greater  endeavor.  The 
other  feeds  the  stock  and  lets  it  go  at  that. 


USING  FEEDS  FOR  BEST  RESULTS         35 

This  personal  touch  is  of  great  importance,  and 
includes  everything  involved  in  the  preparation  of 
feeds  that  the  highest  digestibility  may  be  secured. 
Rough  treatment,  bad  quarters,  irregularity  in  feed- 
ing, usually  in  themselves  will  overbalance  the  ad- 
vantages gained  in  attempting  to  influence  digesti- 
bility and  larger  consumption  through  better  prep- 
aration for  easier  mastication,  or  through  appeal  to 
the  taste  and  appetite. 

The  good  feeder  is  a  good  judge  of  stock.  He  is 
careful,  cautious,  and  habitually  regular;  endowed 
with  virtues  of  patience,  perseverance,  and  good 
common  sense,  he  treats  his  animals  as  though  they 
were  children  in  a  schoolroom.  He  watches  every 
detail ;  if  a  slight  change  or  modification  of  method 
is  necessary,  he  sees  that  this  is  effected  at  once. 
He  meets  all  contingencies  as  they  arise,  calmly  and 
without  excitement.  Above  all,  he  possesses  a 
refinement  of  manner  and  disposition  that  causes 
his  animals  to  know  and  love  him.  Thus  they  will 
repay  in  more  willing  labor  or  in  more  milk  or  in 
cheaper  beef,  pork  or  wool.  Herein  is  the  real  secret 
of  feeding  the  animals  of  the  farm  successfully. 


CHAPTER  V 
COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS 

Combustible  Matter. — Animals  are  often  de- 
stroyed by  fire;  they  possess,  therefore,  combusti- 
ble materials.  These  consist  largely  of  the  nitrog- 
enous substances,  and  the  fats,  both  of  which  are 
present  in  the  frame,  tissue  and  other  organic  por- 
tions of  the  body.  In  the  skeleton,  or  frame,  three 
classes  of  substances  are  formed — protein,  gelati- 


AGE  OF  STEERS  IN  RESPECT  TO  COST  OF  100  POUNDS  GAIN 

CALVES 
ONE      YEAR    OLD 
TWO      YEARS  OLD 
THREE  YEARS  OLD 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHTS 

AVERAGE  COST  IN  DOLLARS  OF  100  POUNDS  GAIN 
1.00      2.00      3.00      4.00      5.00     6.00     7.00 

397 
883 
10  1  1 
1226 

CHEAPEST  GAINS  ARE  MADE  WITH  YOUNG  ANIMALS 

As  animals  advance  in  age  the  cost  of  food  for  maintenance  and  increase 
advances  also.     Compare  the  four  classes  of  cattle  as  sketched  above. 

nous  matter,  and  horny  matter.  Of  first  importance 
is  the  protein,  which  forms  the  greater  part  of  the 
muscular  tissue,  the  various  organs,  the  material  of 
which  the  nervous  system  is  made,  and  the  major 
portion  of  the  solid  matter  of  blood.  Connective 
tissue,  the  combustible  part  of  the  cartilage  and 
bone,  and  the  skin,  are  formed  of  the  gelatinous 
matter.  Horn,  hair,  wool,  and  feathers  constitute 
the  horny  matter.  The  animal  juices  are  of  a  nitrog- 
enous origin  also.  The  fats  contain  no  nitrogen,  but  are 
combustible  and  are  either  of  a  hard  or  a  fluid  nature. 


COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS 


37 


Incombustible  Matter. — The  bones  contain  the 
largest  part  of  the  incombustible  constituents.  Here 
are  found  calcium  phosphate,  calcium  carbonate 
and  magnesium  phosphate  in  greatest  abundance. 
Potassium  phosphate  heads  the  list  in  the  tissues. 
These  mineral  substances  constitute  from  three  to 
five  per  cent  of  the  live  weight  of  the  animal. 

Water. — More  than  half  of  the  entire  weight  of 
the  animal  is  water.  It  is  to  be  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  body  and  is  as  essential  for  the  development 
of  solid  tissue  as  any  of  the  other  ingredients. 
Young  and  growing  animals,  like  young  and  grow- 
ing plants,  contain  the  highest  percentage  of  water. 
As  the  animal  matures  the  proportion  of  water  dimin- 
ishes until  it  reaches  about  one-half  of  the  total  weight. 

Range  of  Variation  of  Materials. — The  amounts 
of  water,  nitrogenous  matter,  fat,  and  the  mineral 
constituents  present  in  a  large  number  of  animals 
have  been  determined  at  Rothamsted  Station  in  Eng- 
land. The  table  following  shows  the  range  of  variation 
of  the  various  constituents  and  for  different  animals. 


PERCENTAGE   COMPOSITION    OF   WHOLE   ANIMAL 

(WARRINGTON) 


Constit- 

Fat 

Half 

Fat 

Fat 

Fat 

Store 

Fat 

uent 

Calf 

Fat  Ox 

Ox 

Lamb 

Sheep 

Pig 

Pig 

Water    .  . 

65.1 

56.0 

48.4 

52.2 

46.1 

58.1 

43.0 

Protein    . 

15.7 

18.1 

15.4 

13.5 

13.0 

14.5 

11.4 

Fat     

15.3 

20.8 

32.0 

31.1 

37.9 

24.6 

43.9 

Ash     

3.9 

5.1 

1.2 

3.2 

3.0 

2.8 

1.7 

The  smallest  amounts  of  both    ash    and    protein 
are  found  in  the  pig,  the  largest  in  the  ox.     Fat  is 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


found  in  greatest  quantity  in  the  pig  and  least  in 
the  calf.  The  ingredient  in  largest  quantity  is  water. 
Principal  Ash  Constituents. — It  is  of  interest,  and 
worth  while  also,  to  know  what  quantities  of  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  to  be  found  in 
various  animals  and  their  products.  This  informa- 
tion is  of  value  in  determining  the  quantity  of  each 
removed  from  the  farm  when  an  animal  is  sold  or 
its  products  sent  to  market.  In  the  following  table 
these  data  are  given. 

NITROGEN,   PHOSPHORIC   ACID  AND  POTASH   IN    I,OOO 
POUNDS  (WARRINGTON) 


Animal 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

Fat  Calf   

24  6 

15  4 

2  1 

Fat  Ox    

23  3 

15  5 

1  8 

Fat    Lamb 

197 

11  3 

1  7 

Fat   Sheep    .           .... 

19  8 

10  4 

1  5 

Store   Pig   

22  1 

10  7 

2  0 

Fat    Pig 

17  7 

6  5 

1  4 

Washed    Wool 

94  4 

1  8 

1  9 

Milk      

5  8 

2  0 

1  7 

Skim    Milk     

5  0 

2  1 

2  0 

In  the  fat  calf  and  the  fat  ox  the  largest  amount  of 
these  three  important  fertilizing  elements  is 
removed,  and  in  the  fat  pig  the  least.  Hog  raising, 
therefore,  is  less  hard  on  the  land  than  beef  produc- 
tion. Dairying  is  more  favorable  even  than  pork. 
If  we  assume  a  cow  produces  5,000  pounds  of  milk 
during  a  lacteal  period  and  this  milk  is  sold  to  the 
city,  the  loss  to  the  land  will  be  29  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 10  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  8.5  pounds  of 
potash.  Rating  the  nitrogen  at  16  cents  a  pound, 


COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS 


39 


the  phosphoric  acid  at  5  cents  and  potash  at  5  cents, 
the  total  money  loss  will  be  $5.57.  The  milk,  if 
sold  at  4  cents  a  quart,  would  bring  $100.  Consid- 
ering the  large  amount  of  feed  furnished  and  the 
large  amount  of  manure  resulting  therefrom,  the 
loss  in  plant  food  is  small.  If,  instead  of  selling 
milk,  butter  is  sold,  the  loss  of  these  three  elements 
will  be  insignificant. 


FATTENING  HOGS-FOOD  CONSUMED  TO  PRODUCE  100  POUNDS  6AIN 

100        200        300       400       500 

600      700 

riR^T      rnrvTNifii  IT  • 

SECOND  FORTNIGHT  • 

THIRD       FORTNIGHT  • 

rniir?Tn  rnRTNifiHT  • 

FIFTH      FORTNIGHT  • 

FOOD  CONSUMED  DURING  FATTENING  PERIOD 

During  a  ten-week  fattening  period  with  hogs  the  food  consumption  in- 
creases more  than  50  per  cent  to  produce  100  pounds  of  increase.  There  is 
a  limit  to  which  hogs  can  be  profitably  fed. 

Percentage  of  Increase  in  Fattening. — When  ani- 
mals are  fattened  for  market  an  increase  of  all  con- 
stituents is  noticed.  This  is  shown  in  the  table 
below. 

INCREASE  DURING  FATTENING  STAGE    (WARRINGTON) 


Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Pies    . 

23.6 

7.8 

63.1 

0.5 

Peeves              .  • 

24  6 

7  7 

66  2 

1.5 

Sheep    

22  0 

7.2 

68.8 

2.0 

The  sheep,  during  the  fattening  period,  stores  up 
fully  four  times  as  much  ash  as  the  pig.  The  sig- 
nificant thing  brought  out  in  this  table  is  the  fact 


4O  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

that  the  protein  increase  is  very  similar  in  the  three 
classes,  and  that  the  fat  increase  ranges  between 
eight  and  nine  times  the  quantity  of  the  protein. 

Group  Constituents. — The  substances  of  the  ani- 
mal's body  may  be  grouped  under  four  heads : 

1.  Water. 

2.  Ash  or  mineral  matter. 

3.  Protein. 

4.  Fat. 


WHAT  AN  ANIMAL  CONTAINS 

Protein,  the  dark  red  substance;  fat,  the  white  strips;  bone  or  mineral 
matter;  and  water,  comprise  the  distinct  groups  of  substances  that  form  the 
animal  body. 

This  grouping  differs  little  from  that  of  plants. 
Since  starch,  the  vegetable  gums,  sugar,  cellulose, 
etc.,  are  derived  from  the  same  elements  and  have 
the  same  fuel  value  when  assimilated  by  the  animal, 
they  can  be  classed  as  carbohydrates.  The  carbo- 


COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS 


hydrates  are  formed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen ;  the  last  two  elements  are  in  the  proportion  to 
form  water,  hence  the  name.  When  all  the  plant 
constituents  are  grouped  together  the  five  divisions 
are  as  follows: 

1.  Water. 

2.  Ash. 

3.  Protein. 

4.  Fat. 

5.  Carbohydrates. 


THE  SOIL 


THE  PLANT        THE  ANIMAL 


STARCH: 
/CRUDE  FIBER 

\AND  CELLULOSi 
PROTEIN' 
OIL  OR  FAT- 


SUGAR 


PROTEIN 


FAT 

/HEAT 
\ENERGY 


ASH  OR  MINERAL  MATTER-— ASH 


WATER 


WATER 


CYCLE  OF  LIFE 

From  the  plant  is  fed  the  animal;   from  the   animal   is  sustained  the  soil: 
from  the  soil  and  air  is  nourished  the  plant. 


42  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

From  the  standpoint  of  composition  the  only  dif- 
ference between  plants  and  animals  is  in  the  fact 
that  the  former  contain  carbohydrates  and  the  latter 
do  not. 

What  These  Compounds  Do. — Protein  is  the 
"muscle  maker"  of  the  body;  fat  and  carbohydrates, 
the  "heat  and  energy  producers."  The  protein  of 
the  plant  is  changed  into  the  protein  of  the  animal. 
In  the  animal  this  constituent  comprises  the  mus- 
cular tissue,  blood,  hair  and  nerves,  the  internal 
organs,  skin,  etc.  In  addition  the  protein  is  used  in 
the  repair  work  of  the  body.  Every  beat  of  the 
heart,  every  circuit  of  the  blood,  and  every  move 
of  a  muscle,  demands  that  some  protein  sub- 
stance be  used  up.  To  keep  the  animal  machine  in 
good  working  order  these  parts  must  be  kept  in 
repair.  Hence,  protein  at  all  times  must  replace 
the  broken  parts  with  a  new  supply.  If  this  supply 
satisfies  the  waste,  the  weight  of  the  animal  will 
remain  unchanged.  When  the  supply  is  liberal,  or 
exceeds  the  demands  of  the  system,  material  may 
be  stored  in  the  body  as  flesh  or  fat,  and  the  animal 
will  gain  in  weight. 

Food  is  needed  to  keep  animals  warm.  As  wood 
gives  off  heat  when  burned  in  the  stove,  so  food 
consumed  in  the  body  furnishes  heat.  This  con- 
sumption of  fuel  food  is  so  well  regulated  in  a 
healthy  animal  that  the  temperature  remains  at  the 
same  point  at  all  times.  Carbohydrates  and  fats 
are  mainly  the  sources  of  the  heat  supply.  These 
same  ingredients  are  used  for  the  production  of  fat 


COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS  43 

in  the  body  and  of  muscular  energy ;  yet  protein  may 
also  be  used. 

Protein  Food  furnishes  in  the  animal  body : 

1.  Protein 

Blood, 

Brain  and  nerves, 
Internal  organs  and  skin, 
Flesh,  etc. 

2.  Heat 

3.  Fat 

4.  Energy 

Fat  of  Food  furnishes  in  the  animal  body: 

1.  Heat 

2.  Fat 

3.  Energy 

Carbohydrates  of  Food  furnish  in  the  animal  body : 

1.  Heat 

2.  Fat 

3.  Energy 


CHAPTER  VI 
FOOD  NUTRIENTS 

Nutrients  Defined. — Any  substance  absorbed  into 
the  system  in  the  process  of  digestion  or  that  con- 
tributes to  the  support  of  animal  life  is  a  nutrient. 
Hence,  the  albumen  of  an  egg,  the  starch  of  a  potato, 


COWPEAS  A  RICH  FOOD 

Much  nutrition  is  obtained  from  cowpeas  and  other  leguminous  crops. 
These  are  relatively  rich  in  protein,  and  hence  should  have  a  place  in  every 
system  of  farming. 

the  salts  of  an  apple,  the  ash  of  wheat  bran,  the  fiber 
of  pasture  grass,  are  all  nutrients  and  as  such  pro- 
mote the  well-being  of  animals  which  can  grow,  do 
work,  give  milk  or  lay  on  fat  or  flesh. 

44 


FOOD  NUTRIENTS  45 

Most  Feeding  Stuffs  are  Unbalanced. — If  every 
food  were  wholly  digestible  and  the  digestible  pro- 
tein, digestible  carbohydrates  and  digestible  fats 
were  united  in  every  feeding  stuff  in  just  the  right 
proportion  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  particular  ani- 
mal, life  feeding  of  farm  animals  would  be  a  simple 
problem.  But  plants  vary  in  composition ;  their 
food  constituents  are  neither  all  nor  yet  equally 
digestible;  some  are  much  concentrated  in  form, 
while  others  place  their  food  nutrients  in  large  bulk. 
Because  of  these  differences  in  the  nature  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  wide  variety 
and  to  blend  or  mix  the  provender  that  the  varying 
needs  of  the  various  classes  under  continuous 
change  of  method  of  feeding  or  of  age  or  of  pur- 
pose may  be  met.  This  gives  rise  to  the  compound- 
ing of  rations  for  each  special  class  of  live  stock. 

But  few  single  feeding  stuffs  furnish  the  required 
quantities  of  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat;  the 
most  economical  and  best  results  are  secured  when 
two  or  more  are  combined.  By  such  a  combination, 
if  one  feed  is  lacking  in  protein,  for  instance,  this 
deficiency  may  be  met  in  the  ration  through  the 
selection  of  another  substance  possessing  the  pro- 
tein element  in  unusual  abundance.  In  this  man- 
ner the  shortage  of  the  one  is  balanced  by  the 
abundance  of  the  other. 

Digestibility  Denned. — Every  feeding  stuff  con- 
tains protein,  carbohydrates,  fat,  ash  and  water.  Of 
each  of  these  there  is  a  distinct  proportion  absorbed, 
and  the  remainder  is  rejected  and  excreted  in  the 
feces.  The  proportion  which  represents  the  quan- 


46  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

tity  absorbed  is  spoken  of  as  the  amount  digested  or 
absorbed  into  the  system.  Digestibility  refers  to  the 
true  food  value  of  any  nutrient.  Every  food,  there- 
fore, regardless  of  the  balance  of  its  proximate 
principles,  contains  both  digestible  and  indigestible 
matter.  To  know  the  proportion  of  each  part  is 


TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  POUNDS  IN  2000  POUNDS  OF  SUBSTANCE 


5 10  20  30         50  75  IQO  125          15.0  175       200 


WHOLE  WHEAT 

FLOUR 

WHEAT  BRAN 

CORN 

CORN  MEAL 

DRIED  BEET  PULP 

OATS 

OAT  MEAL 

PEAS,  GARDEN 

BEANS.GARDEN 

BEEF 

CHEESE 

TIMOTHY  HAY 

RED  CLOVER  HAY 

ALFALFA  HAY 


MINERAL  MATTER  IN  SOME  COMMON  FOODS 

The  total  number  of  pounds  of  mineral  matter  in  a  ton  of  certain  sub- 
stance is  here  shown.  Notice  how  small  is  the  quantity  in  a  ton  of  wheat 
flour.  Wheat  bran,  on  the  other  hand,  is  abundantly  supplied.  In  our 
methods  of  manufacture  farm  animals  profit  at  the  expense  of  the  human 
family. 

necessary  if  the  feeder  is  to  make  use  of  his  feeds 
to  the  best  advantage. 

How  Digestibility  of  a  Food  Is  Determined. — The 
general  method  of  investigation  to  obtain  the  diges- 
tibility of  the  various  constituents  of  a  feeding  stuff 
has  been  to  supply  an  animal  with  weighed  quanti- 
ties of  food  the  composition  of  which  has  been  as- 
certained by  chemical  analysis.  Within  the  period 
during  which  such  an  experiment  is  being  con- 


FOOD  NUTRIENTS 


47 


ducted,  the  solid  excrements  are  collected,  weighed 
and  analyzed  by  the  same  chemical  methods  applied 
previously  to  the  food.  By  this  plan  the  amount 
of  each  constituent  of  the  food  which  has  passed 
through  the  animal  unabsorbed  is  determined.  It 
is  a  simple  matter  now  to  subtract  this  quantity 
from  the  amount  found  to  have  been  present  in  the 
food  originally  and  to  obtain  the  difference,  which 
is  the  amount  digested  and  absorbed. 

First  Step  Is  to  Obtain  Composition. — Chemists 
have  analyzed  all  the  important  feeding  stuffs, 
Slight  variation  is  noted,  which  is  due  largely  to 
difference  of  variety,  soil,  climate,  season,  fertiliza- 
tion and  culture.  Based  on  averages,  the  resulting 
figures  of  composition  are  sufficiently  accurate  for 
all  purposes  of  ration  building.  In  the  table  follow- 
ing a  few  common  feeding  stuffs  are  included  for 
assistance  in  determining  the  real  nutritive  value  of 
each  constituent. 


COMPOSITION  OF   SOME  COMMON   FEEDING  STUFFS 


Feeding  stuffs 

In  100  pounds  of  fresh  substance 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Corn    stover  — 
field    cured    .  .    . 
Red  clover  hay 
Timothy   hay    .  . 
Cottonseed    hulls 
Corn  —  dent     .  . 

3.8 
12.3 
5.9 
4.2 
10.3 
15.7 
45.3 
25.0 

19.7 
24.8 
29.0 
46.3 
2.2 
9.0 
6.3 
6.8 

31.5 

38.1 
45.0 
33.4 
70.4 
53.9 
24.6 
53.5 

1.1 
3.3 
2.5 
2.2 
5.0 
4.0 
10.1 
3.5 

Wheat   bran    .  .  . 
Cottonseed    meal 
Gluten   feed    .  .  . 

48 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


By  this  table  not  only  a  wide  difference  in  the 
quantity  of  each  constituent  of  each  feeding  stuff  is 
noticed,  but  also  that  this  obtains  in  all  feeds,  with 
no  regularity  of  quantity  for  any  constituent.  The 
amount  of  protein  varies  from  3.8  pounds  in  corn 
stover  to  45.3  pounds  in  cottonseed  meal.  In  respect 


WHAT  FIELD  CORN  CONTAINS 

When  corn  is  analyzed  nitrogen-free  extract,  or  starch,  is  found  to  be 
present  in  the  largest  quantity.  The  amount  of  protein  is  not  large  and  the 
ash  supply  is  small.  Corn  as  an  exclusive  food  would  insufficiently  supply 
the  mineral  elements,  and  there  would  be  too  little  protein  in  proportion  to 
the  starch  and  fat. 

to  crude  fiber  the  amount  ranges  from  2.2  pounds 
in  corn  to  46.3  pounds  in  cottonseed  hulls.  The 
greatest  variation  is  with  the  nitrogen-free  extract ; 
it  runs  from  24.6  pounds  in  cottonseed  meal  to  70.4 
pounds  in  corn.  Much  difference  is  observed  also 
in  the  fat;  I.I  pound  is  present  in  corn  stover,  but 
this  advances  to  ten  times  that  in  the  cotton  meal. 


FOOD  NUTRIENTS 


49 


Coefficient  of  Digestibility. — In  the  composition 
of  feeding  stuffs,  both  the  digested  and  unabsorbed 
materials  are  included.  The  absorbed  matter  only 
is  of  importance  as  food.  The  data  obtained  through 
the  digestion  trials  make  known  the  percentage  of 
each  nutrient  digested.  Such  figures  express  the 
digestion  coefficient  for  each  constituent  of  the  food 
consumed.  In  the  table  following  are  given  the 
figures  representing  the  coefficients  of  digestibility 
for  each  constituent  of  each  feeding  stuff  previously 
given. 

DIGESTION    COEFFICIENTS  OF  SOME   COMMON   FEEDING 

STUFFS 


Percentag 

B  digestible 

Feeding  stuffs 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Corn  stover    

45 

67 

61 

62 

Red    clover    hay.  .  .  . 
Timothy  hay 

55 

48 

46 
52 

64 
63 

53 
60 

Cottonseed    hulls    .  . 
Corn    

6 
76 

47 
58 

34 
93 

79 
86 

W^heat  bran 

77 

41 

71 

63 

Cottonseed    meal    .  . 
Gluten  feed   

83 

85 

35 

76 

78 
89 

94 

82 

A  marked  variation  is  shown  in  this  table.  None 
of  the  constituents  are  equally  well  digested.  In 
few  instances  are  more  than  three-fourths  of  any 
one  substance  absorbed  into  the  system.  With  cot- 
tonseed hulls  but  6  per  cent  of  the  protein  is 
digested,  but  a  large  amount  of  the  fat — 79  per  cent 
— is  absorbed. 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


Digestible  Nutrients. — With  both  the  composition 
and  the  digestible  percentage  known,  it  is  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter  to  determine  the  digestible 
quantity  of  each  constituent.  This  is  done  by  multi- 


ASH    g  . 
PROTEIN 


>EXTR' 

CRUBEij 

•FAT  --^ 


WHAT  CORN  STOVER  CONTAINS 

Corn  stover  contains  more  ash,  water  and  fibre,  and  less  protein,  starch 
and  fat  than  corn.  Ear  corn  contains  the  same  food  ingredients,  but  these 
are  more  valuable  because  less  fibrous  and  more  concentrated.  The  real 
worth-while  nutrients  are  protein,  starch,  and  fat. 

plying  the  figures  representing  the  total  amount  of 
each  constituent  by  the  coefficient  of  digestibility, 
the  resulting  product  being  the  quantity  digested. 
For  example,  corn  stover  contains  3.8  pounds  of  pro- 
tein, 19.7  pounds  of  crude  fiber,  31.5  pounds  of  nitro- 


FOOD  NUTRIENTS 


gen-free  extract  and  i.i  pounds  of  fat.  By  multi- 
plying these  amounts  by  the  figures  representing 
the  digestibility  for  each  constituent  respectively, 
the  amount  of  each  digestible  nutrient  will  be  ob- 
tained. This  is  done  as  follows : 

Digestible  Digestible 

Constituent  Composition     Coefficient  Nutrient 

Protein   3.8          x          45          =  1.7 

Crude  Fiber    19.7    *    x          67          =          13.2 

Nitrogen-free  extract    31.5         x         61          =          19.2 

Fat    1.1         x         62          =  0.7 

The  total  digestible  nutrients  may  be  determined 
in  this  manner  for  each  feeding  stuff.  Crude  fiber 
and  nitrogen-free  extract,  being  used  for  the  same 
purpose  after  absorption,  may  be  included  as  a 
single  group.  They  stand  for  the  same  thing,  and 
from  now  on  will  be  grouped  under  the  term  car- 
bohydrates. In  the  table  below  the  feeding  stuffs 
previously  mentioned  are  listed  and  the  total  diges- 
tible nutrients  of  each  are  shown. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  SOME  COMMON  FEEDING 
STUFFS 


Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 


Feeding  stuffs 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Corn  stover    

1.7 

32.4 

0.7 

Red  clover  hay   .... 
Timothy  hay   
Cottonseed   hulls 
Corn                    . 

6.8 
2.8 
.3 

7  8 

35.8 
43.4 
33.1 
66  7 

1.7 
1.5 
1.7 
4.3 

"Wheat  bran          .... 

12  1 

41  9 

2.5 

Cottonseed    meal    .  . 
Gluten    feed 

37.6 
21  3 

20.7 
51  8 

9.5 

2.9 

Correct    Rations    are    Based    on    Digestibility. — 
From  the  data  here  given  the  importance  of  basing 


52  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

all  feeding  rations  on  the  digestible  matter  rather 
than  on  the  total  composition  is  clearly  seen.  Only 
a  part  of  the  food  taken  into  the  stomach  is  assim- 
ilated— just  a  part;  sometimes  90  per  cent,  some- 
times 75  per  cent,  some  times  50  per  cent  and  in  the 
case  of  some  foods  as  little  as  25  per  cent  is  digesti- 
ble. Hence,  in  every  feed  there  is  a  part  lost  and 


HE  HAD  A  GOOD  RATION 

This  rs  a  picture  of  the  champion  grade  steer  at  the  1909  International 
live  stock  show.  He  was  fed  a  variety  of  food,  and  with  great  care  and 
thought. 

wasted  to  the  animal ;  therefore,  this  serves  no  con- 
tribution to  the  nutriment  of  the  body. 

Nor  can  one  constituent  be  used  wholly  to  take 
the  place  of  any  other.  Since  protein  contains  nitro- 
gen and  sulphur  in  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  it  is  evident  that  neither  the  carbohydrates 
nor  the  fats  which  contain  carbon,  hydrogen  and 


FOOD  NUTRIENTS  53 

oxygen  only  can  be  substituted  for  protein.  Just  as 
the  phosphorus  or  potassium  of  a  fertilizer  cannot  re- 
place nitrogen,  so  the  carbohydrates  or  the  fats  can- 
not replace  the  protein  of  a  food.  While  it  is  true 
that  protein  may  be  substituted  for  the  carbohy- 
drates and  fats,  it  is  to  a  limited  extent,  and  only 
for  a  limited  time.  Even  though  the  well-being  of 
the  animal  would  permit  of  this  substitution  the 
added  expense  would  be  against  the  practice. 


CHAPTER  VII 
SOME  SCIENTIFIC  TERMS  IN  FEEDING 

The  Animal  as  a  Machine. — Considered  as  a  ma- 
chine, the  animal  body  needs  two  classes  of  food: 
one,  to  furnish  the  materials  by  which  the  machine 
may  be  constructed  and  kept  in  repair;  and  a  sec- 
ond, or  sustaining  reserve,  to  develop  heat  to  keep 
the  body  warm  and  to  supply  energy  for  the  pro- 
duction of  internal  and  external  work.  Water,  ash 
and  protein  are  the  essential  building  materials  and 
the  fats  and  carbohydrates  the  primary  fuel  sub- 
stances. This  distinction  gives  rise  to  the  grouping 
of  feeding  stuffs  as  being  either  of  a  building  or  fuel 
nature.  All  individual  foods  contain  both,  but  in 
varying  proportions ;  some  are  heavy  carriers  of  the 
first,  others  of  the  second,  and  still  others  within 
these  two  extremes.  Food  values,  therefore,  are 
somewhat  dependent  upon  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  classified ;  this,  of  course,  being  consistent 
with  the  nature  of  their  digestible  nutrients. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — A  point  of  some  importance  in 
determining  the  suitability  of  a  feeding  stuff  as  an 
article  of  diet  is  the  proportion  between  the  digesti- 
ble protein  and  the  digestible  non-protein  organic 
constituents.  This  relation  is  most  conveniently 
termed  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  food.  Simply  de- 
fined, this  term  means  the  ratio  which  exists 
between  the  amount  of  digestible  protein  to  the 
combined  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat.  It  is 

54 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC   TERMS    IN    FEEDING 


55 


FEEDING  STUFF 


NUTRITIVE 
RATIO 


I  PROTEIN    - 

1  CARBOHYDRATES  &  FAT 


DRIED  BLOOD 

TANKAGE 

COTTON  SEED  MEAL 

LINSEED  MEAL 

SOY  BEANS 

SKIM  MILK 

GLUTEN  FEED 

COW  PEAS 

DRIED  BREWERS'GRAINS 

COWS  MILK 

WHEAT  BRAN 

ALFALFA 

COW  PEA  HAY 

PASTURE  GRASS 

WHEAT  MIDDLINGS 

MANGLES 

RAPE 

RED  CLOVER  HAY 

OATS 

BUCKWHEAT 

RYE 

WHEAT 

TURNIPS 

KAFIR  CORN 

BLUE  GRASS 

CORN 

BEET  PULP 

MILLET  HAY 

PRAIRIE  HAY 

CORN  SILAGE 

CORN  &  COB  MEAL 

TIMOTHY  HAY 

POTATO 

CORN  STOVER 

KAFIR  CORN  STOVER 

SORGUM  HAY 

OAT  STRAW 

WHFAT  STRAW 


NUTRITIVE  RATIO  OF  SOME  COMMON  FEEDING  STUFFS 


56  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

obtained  as  follows :  The  fat  is  reduced  to  its  car- 
bohydrate equivalent  and  added  to  the  digestible 
carbohydrates.  The  sum  of  the  two,  representing 
the  non-protein,  is  then  divided  by  the  figure  or  fig- 
ures representing  the  quantity  of  protein.  The 
resulting  figure  is  the  second  factor,  which  means  that 
for  each  pound  of  protein  in  the  feed  or  ration  there 
are  so  many  pounds  of  non-protein  or  carbohydrates. 

Reducing  Fat  to  Carbohydrates. — The  non- 
protein  constituents  of  a  feed — starch,  fiber,  fats, 
etc. — are  used  to  develop  heat,  energy  and  fat  in 
the  animal  body.  Their  efficiency  for  this  purpose 
has  been  ascertained  by  numerous  experiments, 
which  show  that  a  pound  of  fat  will  develop  as 
much  heat  energy  as  2.3  pounds  of  starch.  Hence, 
this  more  concentrated  energy  must  be  taken  in 
consideration  in  combining  the  carbohydrates  and 
fat  as  a  single  unit  group  if  a  definite,  accurate  value 
is  to  be  obtained  with  reference  to  any  feeding  stuff. 
In  all  calculations  from  now  on  this  higher  efficiency 
of  fat  will  be  given  its  proper  weight. 

Determining  the  Nutritive  Ratio. — In  a  previous 
table  the  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of  corn 
were  shown  to  be  as  follows :  Protein  7.8  pounds, 
carbohydrates  66.8  pounds  and  fat  4.3  pounds.  The 
fat  first  is  reduced  to  its  carbohydrate  equivalent  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  pounds  representing  it  by 
the  authoritatively  taken  factor  2.3;  which  being 
done,  shows  that  4.3  pounds  of  fat  equal  9.9  pounds 
of  the  carbohydrates  in  producing  heat  and  energy. 
The  fat,  now  having  been  reduced  to  a  carbohydrate 
basis,  can  be  added  to  66.8,  the  amount  of  carbo- 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC   TERMS   IN    FEEDING  57 

hydrates  in  corn,  which  gives  76.7  pounds  of  total 
carbohydrates.  This  sum  divided  by  the  number 
representing  the  quantity  of  protein,  whirh  in  the 
case  of  corn  is  7.8  pounds,  gives  the  final  factor 
of  the  ratio,  or  9.8. 

In  the  form  of  proportion  the  stages  are  as  follows : 

(1)  The  amount  of  protein  is  to  the  amount  of  the 

carbohydrates  as    I    is   to   the   factor  to  be 
determined. 

(2)  Protein   :  Carbohydrates    :  :  I    :  x 

(3)  7.8  :  (66.8  +  9.9)         :  :  i    :  x 

(4)  7.8  :  76.7  :  :  i    :  9.8 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  therefore  I  to  9.8, 
which  means  that  in  this  feeding  stuff  for  every 
pound  of  digestible  protein  there  are  9.8  pounds  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat  equivalent. 

Wide  or  Narrow  Nutritive  Ratio. — A  wide  dif- 
ference exists  among  feeds  as  to  the  proportion  of 
protein  which  they  contain.  The  oil  meals  and  the 
legumes,  especially  their  seeds,  are  rich  in  protein, 
roots  and  straw  very  poor,  while  cereal  grain  and 
their  products  occupy  a  middle  place.  These  differ- 
ences give  rise  to  the  terms  wide  and  narrow  nutri- 
tive ratios  which  apply  both  to  single  feeds  and  rations. 
A  feed  or  a  ration  has  a  "narrow"  nutritive  ratio 
when  the  digestible  protein  contained  in  it  is  high  in 
comparison  to  the  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  "wide" 
when  the  reverse  to  this;  that  is,  little  protein  and 
much  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fat. 

Balanced  Ration. — Since  all  feeding  stuffs,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  pasture  grass,  are  unfit  as 
single  food  substances,  they  naturally  fall  in  a  class 


5o  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

as  being  either  wide  or  narrow.  If  two  or  more  are 
combined  in  the  proper  proportions  to  furnish  all 
the  digestible  nutrients,  with  no  excess  or  shortage 
of  any  nutrient,  but  in  just  the  quantity  needed  by 
a  certain  class  of  animals  fed  for  a  distinct  purpose, 
the  combination  is  then  satisfactory,  and  does  pro- 
vide a  balanced  ration. 


BALANCING  THE  RATION  IMPROVES  IT 

The  two  larger  pigs  at  the  right  have  been  fed  corn  and  tankage,  while 
the  two  smaller  ones  at  the  left  have  been  fed  corn  only.  This  shows  why  a 
balanced  ration  is  worth  while. 


Feeding  Standards. — For  many  years  investi- 
gators have  been  conducting  feeding  tests  to  learn 
the  amount  of  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates  and 
fat  best  for  farm  animals  under  average  conditions. 
They  have  studied  the  results  of  various  foods  and 
varying  amounts  in  thousands  of  animals.  The  re- 
sults are  embodied  in  what  are  called  feeding  stand- 
ards. These  tell  the  proper  amounts  of  the  nutri- 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC   TERMS   IN    FEEDING  5Q 

ents,  or  one  day's  food,  for  an  animal  of  a  certain 
weight  under  ordinary  conditions. 

The  subject  is  complicated  in  so  many  ways  that 
it  is  out  of  the  question  to  say  with  great  definite- 
ness  in  the  present  light  of  feeding  knowledge  just 
what  amount  of  each  nutrient  to  give  so  the  very 
best  results  may  be  obtained  for  the  average  animal 


FATTENING  STEERS-GRAIN  CONSUMED  TO  PRODUCE  100  POUNDS  GAIN 

NUMBER  OF 
DAYS  FEEDING 

100      200      300     400      500      600      700     800      900    1.000 

56 

84 
1  1  2 

140 
168 
182 

WHEN  THE  FEEDING  PERIOD  Is  EXTENDED 

When  fattening  steers  were  fed  for  56  days  slightly  over  700  pounds  of 
food  were  consumed  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain.  When  the  feeding  period 
was  lengthened  to  182  days  over  a  thousand  pounds  of  grain  was  necessary 
to  give  100  pounds  of  increase. 


under  the  average  methods  of  feeding.  The  early 
standards  proposed  by  German  experimenters  have 
been  somewhat  modified  by  other  investigators,  but 
so  far,  even  though  other  attempts  have  been  made 
to  simplify  these  standards,  the  original  Wolff-Leh- 
mann  feeding  standards  are  still  the  most  popular 
guides  in  all  studies  of  ration  making. 

Maintenance  Standard. — For  one  thing,  these 
early  teachers  stated  that  less  nutrients  are  neces- 
sary for  animals  doing  no  work,  or  giving  no  milk, 
or  not  fed  for  fattening  purposes,  than  for  animals 
actually  so  engaged.  This  has  given  rise  to  a  stand- 
ard for  maintenance  when  the  animal  is  at  rest  in 


60  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

the  stall.  They  showed,  also,  that  a  dairy  cow  giv- 
ing little  or  no  milk  does  not  require  nearly  as  large 
a  quantity  of  food  as  one  in  full  flow  of  milk.  Of 
course,  every  farmer  knows  this ;  but  these  investi- 
gators prepared  a  guide  giving  the  quantity  of 
digestible  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  so  as  to 
meet  the  maintenance  needs  of  the  dry  cow. 

The  dry  cow  does  need  daily  a  certain  amount  of 
each  of  the  food  nutrients.  She  must  keep  her  body 
warm,  maintain  the  regular  blood  supply,  repair  the 
broken-down  tissues  and  meet  all  the  requirements 
of  life  and  health.  These  things  are  obtained  from 
the  food.  If  more  food  is  provided  than  necessary 
to  meet  these  daily  demands,  the  animal  will  increase 
in  weight.  If  too  little  food  is  given,  then  the  re- 
verse will  happen,  the  animal  will  lose  in  weight, 
and,  as  popularly  expressed,  will  become  thin  in  flesh, 
or  poor.  Working  from  this  point,  these  nutrition 
investigators  carefully  prepared  standards  for  cows 
giving  various  quantities  of  milk,  for  steers  at  dif- 
ferent stages  of  fattening,  for  horses  doing  little  or 
much  work,  and  for  hogs  and  sheep  at  their  various 
periods  of  growth  and  fattening. 

Standards  for  Farm  Animals. — These  feeding 
standards  as  guides  indicate  for  feeders  what 
amount  of  each  nutrient  is  required  in  the  body,  not 
only  for  maintenance  and  support,  but  also  for  milk 
or  beef,  wool  or  mutton,  and  labor.  A  different 
standard  is  provided  for  different  animals  and  con- 
sistent with  the  purposes  for  which  the  animals  are 
fed.  A  cow  giving  little  milk,  according  to  the 
standard,  is  to  be  given  smaller  quantities  of  food 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC   TERMS   IN    FEEDING 


6l 


than  another  in  heavy  milk  flow.  Likewise  rations 
for  beeves  differ  considerably  from  those  for  horses 
or  pigs.  These  feeding  standards,  though  easily  under- 
stood, are  still  very  complicated,  but  they  clearly  show 
that  the  practice  of  feeding  is  not  only  an  interesting 
art,  but  one  that  calls  for  much  skill  and  training  also. 

WOLFF-LEHMANN  FEEDING  STANDARDS 
Daily  allotment  on  basis  1,000  pounds  live  weight 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
pounds 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Milk    cows    when    giving 

daily 

11     pounds  of  milk    ... 
22     pounds  of  milk     ... 

25 
29 

1.6 
2.5 

10.0 
13.0 

.3 

.5 

27.5  pounds  of  milk    ... 

32 

3.3 

13.0 

.8 

Fattening  cattle 

First   period      

30 

2  5 

15  0 

5 

Second    period    

30 

3.0 

14  5 

.7 

Third    period 

26 

2  7 

15  0 

7 

Sheep 

Coarse    wool 

20 

1  2 

10  5 

2 

Fine    wool               

23 

1  5 

12  0 

3 

Ewes  with  lambs   .... 

25 

2.9 

15.0 

.5 

Fattening  sheep 
First    period     

30 

3  0 

15  0 

.5 

28 

3.5 

14.5 

.6 

Horses 

20 

1.5 

9.5 

.4 

Medium    work      •    ... 

24 

2  0 

11  0 

6 

Heavy   work   

26 

2  5 

13.3 

.8 

Brood    sows 

22 

2  5 

15.5 

4 

Fattening    hogs 

First   period 

36 

4  5 

25  0 

.7 

Second    period      .... 

32 

4  0 

24  0 

.5 

Third  period  

35 

2.7 

18.0 

.4 

These  standards  are  based  on  1,000  pounds  live 
weight.     For  animals  weighing  less,  as  sheep  and 


62  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

swine,  the  quantity  prescribed  would  be  propor- 
tionately decreased.  A  sheep,  for  instance,  weighing 
100  pounds  would  be  fed  one-tenth  the  quantity  called 
for  in  the  standard.  An  animal  weighing  more  than 
1,000  pounds  would  require  a  proportionate  increase. 

Feeding  Standard  Only  a  Guide. — No  one  should 
rely  absolutely  on  the  feeding  standard  as  his  sole 
aid  in  feeding  any  class  of  animals.  Standards  are 
to  be  taken  as  guides  only  and  are  to  be  varied  or 
modified  as  circumstances  require.  In  fattening 
farm  stock  it  is  clearly  the  best  sense  to  supply  the 
largest  amount  of  food  that  the  stock  fed  can  make 
profitable  use  of.  In  feeding  dairy  cows,  so  long  as 
hay,  fodder,  and  silage  are  home-raised  and  abun- 
dant, the  cows  may  safely  be  given  as  much  as  they 
can  be  tempted  to  eat,  provided  of  course,  the  con- 
centrated feeds  are  not  denied  proper  places  in  the 
ration.  Those  responding  in  heavy  milk  yields  are 
entitled  to  the  largest  amounts  of  the  concentrates, 
while  those  that  are  milking  little  will  not  require 
much,  if  any,  food  of  a  grain  or  concentrate  nature. 

Not  only  the  object  sought  but  the  food  also  will 
govern.  So  does  the  season  of  the  year  exert  its 
influence.  Then  too,  and  not  the  least  either,  the 
size  of  the  animal  affects  the  food  consumption  in 
respect  to  the  general  results.  A  great  part  of  the 
demand  for  food  is  determined  by  the  surface  of  the 
animal  rather  than  by  its  weight.  With  these  cir- 
cumstances in  mind  as  examples  of  various  factors 
that  must  be  considered,  the  feeding  standard  may 
well  be  used  as  a  starting  point  in  the  practical  feed- 
ing of  the  farm  live  stock. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  COMPUTATION  OF  RATIONS 

An  Animal  Uses  Food  for  five  distinct  purposes : 

1.  To  replace  the  waste  from  all  parts  of  the  body. 

2.  To  produce  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm. 

3.  To  produce  energy  so  that  work  may  be  done. 

4.  To   provide   the   building   materials   for  larger 

growth  or  increase  in  muscle,  fat,  flesh,  and 
bone. 

5.  To  have  materials  in  reserve  for  the  formation 

of  milk,  wool,  etc. 

These  five  purposes  develop  after  the  food  is  ab- 
sorbed, and  originate  from  the  digestible  nutrients 
expressed  in  term's  of  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat. 
To  provide  these  nutrients  in  the  quantity  and  pro- 
portions that  they  should  be  fed,  so  as  to  satisfy 
one  or  more  of  the  five  ends  of  feeding,  makes  neces- 
sary the  selection  and  compounding  of  rations. 

Three  Kinds  of  Rations. — As  an  example  of  how 
a  mixture  of  feeding  stuffs  may  be  devised  so  as  to 
yield  the  requisite  amounts  of  the  protein  and 
energy  nutrients  and  at  the  same  time  be  neither 
too  bulky  nor  too  concentrated,  one  of  the  follow- 
ing courses  is  generally  open.  Suppose  a  ration  is 
wanted  for  a  herd  of  dairy  cows.  What  class  of  food 
shall  be  placed  before  the  animals?  In  answer  to 
this  question  it  is  possible  to  furnish  any  one  of 


64 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


three  kinds  of  rations.  One  of  these  might  consist 
of  the  roughage  food  raised  on  the  farm  like  straw, 
corn  stover,  the  usual  farm  hays,  and  a  small  feed 
of  ear  corn ;  on  the  other  hand,  a  ration  might  be 
furnished  consisting  largely  of  grain  feed  or  concen- 


TIMOTHY  NOT  A  BALANCED  FOOD 

Although  one  of  the  most  popular  hay  crops,  timothy  contains  a  small 
amount  of  protein.  It  is  an  excellent  horse  food  but  not  as  good  for  dairy 
cows  as  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpeas. 

trates,  with  a  small  allowance  of  some  cheap  rough- 
age for  feeding. 

Neither  of  these  is  uncommon.  On  many  farms 
the  cows  are  given  the  very  feeds  here  mentioned. 
In  villages,  and  in  herds  near  large  cities,  other  cows 
are  fed  largely  the  by-products  of  certain  manufac- 


THE   COMPUTATION    OF   RATIONS  65 

turing  enterprises  or  on  chop  feeds  and  other  grain 
materials  that  may  be  purchased  often  as  cheaply 
as  hay.  The  result  is,  in  neither  instance  are  the 
cows  fed  as  they  ought  to  be.  The  cow  in  the 
country  gets  too  little  protein  and  too  much  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat;  the  village  cow  too  much  of  pro- 
tein and  too  little  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fat ;  and 


MIXING  THEIR  OWN  RATION 

These  cows  have  the  run  of  a  large  area  in  which  several  kinds  of  grasses 
flourish.     Rape  is  growing  in  the  foreground. 

the  best  results  are  not  obtained  in  either  case.  The 
country  cow  loses  in  weight ;  she  gets  poor ;  she  is 
forced  to  take  from  her  own  body  much  protein 
stored  in  flesh  to  use  for  milk  and  tissue  repair. 
The  village  cow  may  or  may  not  thin  down,  but  the 
necessity  of  using  the  protein  in  the  food  for  meet- 
ing all  the  functions  of  the  nutrients  acts  to  her  dis- 
advantage and  she  is  never  able  to  be  at  her  best. 


66  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Mixed  Foods. — Best  results  are  always  secured 
when  these  two  methods  are  merged :  when  the 
country  cow  is  given  concentrates  in  addition  to  the 
farm-raised  roughages,  and  the  village  cow  gets  hay 
and  stover  in  addition  to  the  feed-store  mill  feeds. 
It  is  not  enough  to  secure  grain  as  concentrates  for 
the  country  cow  either;  the  selection  must  be  made 
on  the  basis  of  the  composition  ;  and,  since  the  coun- 
try cow's  ration  is  already  out  of  proportion  because 
of  the  excess  of  carbohydrates  and  fat,  it  would  not 
help  the  matter  any  by  a  purchase  of  a  grain  food 
also  low  in  protein. 

In  practice  many  feeders  buy  corn  meal  as  a  dairy 
concentrate;  instead  of  improving  the  ration  this 
makes  things  worse,  because  corn  meal  added  to 
the  grass  hay,  corn  stover,  straw  ration  only  in- 
creases the  cost  without  supplying  any  appreciable 
increase  of  protein.  The  way  out  of  this  difficulty 
is  to  study  the  available  concentrates  and  select  one 
or  more  that  contains  protein,  and  not  starch  and 
fat,  in  greatest  abundance. 

How  a  Ration  is  Made. — Rations  are  usually  com- 
puted on  the  basis  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight  for 
the  animals.  If  the  animals  weigh  more,  a  propor- 
tionate increase  of  food  is  allotted;  if  less,  a  pro- 
portionate decrease. 

The  first  step  in  computing  a  ration  is  to  consider 
the  feeding  standard  for  the  class  of  animals  to  be 
fed.  If  it  is  assumed  that  a  ration  is  wanted  for  a 
dairy  cow  giving  22  pounds  of  milk  daily,  the  table 
of  standards  is  to  be  consulted.  For  dairy  cows 
giving  22  pounds  of  milk  the  standard  calls  for  29 


THE   COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS 


pounds  of  dry  matter,  2.5  pounds  of  digestible  pro- 
tein, 13  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.5 
pounds  of  digestible  fat.  Assuming  that  corn  stover, 
corn  silage  and  clover  hay  are  the  most  available, 
we  will  use  such  quantities  of  each  as  have  been 
found  in  practice  to  be  fairly  representative  of  the 
available  supply  on  average  farms  and  about  what 
an  animal  will  eat  up  clean  without  tiring  her  appe- 
tite. 

As  a  starting  point,  we  will  use  10  pounds  of  corn 
stover,  15  pounds  of  clover  hay  and  30  pounds  of 
corn  silage.  The  averages  for  digestible  nutrients 
in  these  feeds  are  the  following: 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
100  pounds 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Pat 

Corn    stover     

59.5 
20  9 
84.7 

1.4 
0.9 

7.1 

31.2 
12.6 
37.8 

0.7 
.6 
1.8 

Corn   silage 

Clover  hay    

The  second  step  in  the  computation  is  to  calculate 
the  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  in  the  quantities 
of  each  of  these  feeding  stuffs.  It  is  clear,  for  in- 
stance, that  10  pounds  of  corn  stover  will  contain 
just  one-tenth  as  much  protein,  carbohydrates  and 
fat  as  TOO  pounds.  If  each  of  these  factors  be 
divided  by  100  and  multiplied  by  10,  we  shall  have 
the  amounts  of  each  constituent  that  10  pounds  of 
corn  stover  will  furnish  the  animal. 


68  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

The  loo  pounds  of  corn  stover  contain : 
59.5  pounds  of  dry  matter, 

1.4  pounds  of  protein, 
31.2  pounds  of  carbohydrates, 
0.7  pounds  of  fat. 

If  loo  pounds  of  corn  stover  contain  these  quan- 
tities of  digestible  nutrients,  then  I  pound  contains 
just  one  one-hundredth  as  much,  or  the  following 
quantities : 

•595  pounds  of  dry  matter, 

.014  pounds  of  protein, 

.324  pounds  of  carbohydrates, 

007  pounds  of  fat. 

Ten  pounds,  of  course,  will  contain  ten  times  the 
quantity  of  I  pound,  or  the  following : 
5.95  pounds  of  dry  matter, 

.14  pounds  of  protein, 
3.24  pounds  of  carbohydrates, 
.07  pounds  of  fat. 

The  digestible  nutrients  in  30  pounds  of  corn 
silage  are  ascertained  in  the  same  manner : 

In  100  In  1  In  30 

pounds  pound  pounds 

Dry  matter   20.9   -r-   100  =   .209  x  30   =    6.27 

Protein    0.9    ^-    100  =   .009  x  30    =      .27 

Carbohydrates     12.6   -=-    100  =   .126  x  30    =    3.78 

Fat   -. 0.6   +   100  =   .006  x  30   =      .18 

Making  the  same  computation  for  each  constitu- 
ent in  clover  hay,  we  have  the  following : 

In  100  In  1  In  15 

pounds  pound  pounds 

Dry  matter   84.7    -4-  100  =   .847  x  15  =    12.70 

Protein    7.1    -r-  100  =   .071  x  15  =      1.06 

Carbohydrates     37.8   -4-  100  =   .378  x  15  =     5.67 

Fat i        1.8   -h  100  =   .18     x  15  =       .27 


THE   COMPUTATION   OF   RATIONS  69 

If  we  arrange  these  figures  in  a  table  and  add  the 
nutrients  together,  we  shall  have  a  statement  of  the 
quantity  of  each  constituent  supplied  in  these  feeds, 
and  will  be  in  a  position  to  compare  with  the  stand- 
ard to  know  what  nutrients  are  insufficiently  pro- 
vided. This  is  done  as  below : 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

10  Ibs  corn  stover.  . 
SO  Ibs  corn   silage.  . 
15  Ibs  clover  hay  .  . 

Totals    

5.95 
6.27 
12.70 

25.92 

.14 
.27 
1.06 

1.47 

3.24 
3.78 
5.67 

12.69 

.07 
.18 
.27 

.52 
.50 

Feeding  standard.  .  . 

29.00 

2.50 

13.00 

Comparing  the  nutrients  in  the  feeds  as  used 
above  with  the  standard,  it  will  be  seen  there  is  a 
deficiency  in  every  instance.  It  will  now  be  neces- 
sary to  introduce  into  the  ration  one  or  more  other 
feeds  in  order  to  correct  the  faults  so  evident  in  the 
table.  Since  the  greatest  deficiency  is  in  the  protein, 
we  must  seek  a  supply  from  among  such  feeding 
stuffs  as  are  particularly  rich  in  protein.  The  oil 
meals  and  the  gluten  meals  are  of  this  kind.  If, 
then,  we  add  2^4  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  we 
shall  very  nearly  approximate  the  standard.  The 
digestible  nutrients  for  this  feed  are  ascertained  in 
the  same  manner  as  before,  and  a  second  trial  made. 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


FEEDING  RATION   FOR  DAIRY   COW 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

In  preceding    

25.92 
2.55 

2S.47 

1.47 
1.03 
2.50 

12.69 
.59 

.52 

.26 

.71 

2%   Ibs  cottonseed 
meal               

Totals     

13.28 

Feeding  standard.  .  . 

29.00 

2.50 

13.00 

.50 

In  this  ration  no  serious  faults  are  noticed.  We 
have  the  correct  amount  of  protein,  but  an  excess 
in  carbohydrates  of  .28  pounds  and  of  fat  .28  pounds. 
The  dry  matter  is  slightly  under  the  standard.  This 
does  not  matter,  however,  so  long  as  the  quantity 
does  not  so  greatly  overrun  the  standard  as  to  give 
greater  bulk  than  the  average  cow  has  room  to  ac- 
commodate. This  deficiency  can  be  considerable 
and  still  not  affect  the  efficiency  of  the  ration.  The 
excess  of  the  fuel  foods  is  so  small  as  to  be  of  no 
importance  at  all.  Were  a  pound  less  of  clover  hay 
and  a  quarter  of  a  pound  more  of  cottonseed  meal 
to  be  used  in  the  ration,  the  ration  would  correspond 
to  the  standard  with  considerable  exactness. 

Feeding  for  Heavy  Milkers. — This  ration  is  for 
dairy  cows  averaging  22  pounds  of  milk  a  day. 
Suppose  a  ration  is  wanted  for  the  same  cows  at 
another  period  when  they  are  giving  more  milk 
than  in  the  case  just  cited,  say  27.5  pounds  daily. 
How  shall  we  proceed  to  adjust  this  ration  to  the 
new  requirements,  using  as  nearly  as  possible  the 


THE   COMPUTATION    OF   RATIONS 


7! 


same  feeding  stuffs  as  before?  The  first  step  is  to 
consult  the  standard.  This  we  find  calls  for  32 
pounds  of  dry  matter;  3.3  pounds  of  protein;  13 
pounds  of  carbohydrates  ;  0.8  pound  of  fat. 

Our  second  step  will  be  to  consider  the  feeding 
stuffs  as  to  the  quantity  to  be  used.  Obviously, 
each  cow  has  a  certain  limit  as  to  storage  and  diges- 
tion capacity  for  bulky  feeds.  In  the  preceding 
ration  we  have  provided  for  about  all  of  the  corn 


HEAVY  MILKERS  REQUIRE  BIG  RATIONS 

The  more  milk  a  cow  gives  the  more  she  must  eat.     The  biggest  eaters  are 
usually  the  heaviest  producers. 

stover,  silage  and  clover  hay  that  the  average  cow 
can  handle.  Her  limit,  therefore,  is  reached  as  far 
as  the  roughage  foods  are  concerned.  We  resort, 
in  consequence,  to  the  concentrated  mill  feeds  to 
supply  the  additional  food  required  because  of  the 
extra  milk  produced. 

Since  the  ration  already  contains  just  about  all 
that  a  cow  of  this  size  can  eat,  we  will  prepare  a 


FEEDING  FARM   ANIMALS 


place  in  the  ration  by  withdrawing  three  pounds  of 
the  clover  hay.  We  will  increase  the  cottonseed 
meal  to  four  pounds  and  add  2^  pounds  of  gluten 
feed.  This  done  we  have  the  following: 


Feeding  stuffs 

,'       Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

10     Ibs    corn    stover 
30     Ibs    corn    silage 
J2     Ibs  clover  hay.  . 
4     Ibs  cottonseed 
meal    .          .  . 

5.95 
6.27 
10.12 

3.76 

2.25 

.14 

.27 
.85 

1.50 
.53 

2.29 

3.24 

3.78 
4.54 

.84 
1.30 

13.70 

.07 
.18 
.21 

.36 
.06 

.88 

2%   Ibs  gluten  feed 

28.35 

Standard 

32.00 

3.30 

13.00 

.80 

This  ration  agrees  closely  with  the  standard  and 
is  assumed  to  satisfy  all  the  requirements  for  a  cow 
yielding  27.5  pounds  of  milk  daily  and  weighing 
1,000  pounds. 

Using  the  Standard  in  Practical  Work.— Too 
many  people  take  feeding  standards  and  balanced 
rations  far  too  seriously.  They  fail  to  understand 
that  it  is  in  the  spirit  and  not  in  their  literal  use 
that  these  feeding  aids  are  to  be  adopted.  The  bal- 
anced ration  at  best  can  be  made  to  approach  only 
approximately  the  food  requirements  for  any  ani- 
mal or  set  of  animals.  This  has  been  pointed  out 
before.  The  composition  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  always 
open  to  considerable  variation,  and  what  adds  still 
to  the  uncertainty  is  the  fact  that  foods  are  not 
digested  with  equal  facility  or  completeness  by  dif- 


THE   COMPUTATION   OF   RATIONS 


73 


ferent  animals,  even  in  the  same  herd  and  given  the 
identical  feeding  stuffs.  Moreover,  it  is  both  im- 
possible and  impracticable  to  provide  a  ration  for 
every  individual  in  a  herd.  To  do  this  would  re- 
quire as  many  different  rations  as  there  are  animals 
to  be  fed,  and  definite  weighings  of  every  feeding 
stuff  contained  in  the  ration.  But  all  this  is  un- 
necessary and  no  exponent  of  the  balanced  ration 
asks  that  it  be  done. 


WHERE  SCIENCE  HELPS  TO  FATTEN 

The  man  who  approximates  the  feeding  standards  has  an  advantage  over  his 
competitor  who  ignores  them. 

The  aim  of  this  scheme  in  feeding  stock  is  to  avoid 
serious  faults  in  the  use  of  feeding  stuffs.  Used  on 
broad  lines,  the  balanced  ration  enables  the  stock 
feeder  to  utilize  to  the  best  advantage  the  plant 
products  which  he  raises.  In  case  he  needs  an  addi- 
tional supply  he  will  be  fully  advised  as  to  what 
class  of  available  purchased  feeds  he  should  obtain 
in  order  to  secure  the  greatest  efficiency  from  the 
food. 


74  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

What  Foods  to  Choose, — On  every  farm  some 
feeding  stuffs  are  grown  that  possess  little  commer- 
cial value.  These  should  form  the  basis  of  that 
ration.  Corn  stover,  the  straws,  legume  hays,  and 
silage  are  all  splendid  bulk  foods,  are  easily  raised 
on  the  farm  and  should  be  used  freely  in  ration  mak- 
ing. They  will  supply  also  the  greater  part  of  the 
carbohydrates  and  fat.  The  farm,  therefore,  is  the 
best  factory  for  the  production  of  the  fuel  nutrients. 
In  the  legumes  and  cereal  grains  much  of  the  pro- 
tein will  be  obtained.  If  any  protein  shortage  exists 
it  is  good  business  sense  to  meet  it,  even  though 
expensive  concentrates  must  be  purchased. 

The  wise  farmer  will  figure  the  cost  of  foodstuffs 
very  carefully  to  find  out  what  is  most  profitable  to 
feed.  It  is  often  best  to  sell  some  of  the  food  having 
a  wide  nutritive  ratio,  such  as  timothy,  corn,  oats, 
and  wheat,  and  to  purchase  foods  having  a  narrow 
nutritive  ratio,  such  as  the  oil  meals,  and  the  factory 
by-products.  Very  often  this  exchange  is  made; 
and  not  only  is  the  ration  improved,  thus  bringing 
about  better  results  from  the  animals  under  feed, 
but  a  money  profit  is  secured  in  addition  to  that 
obtained  because  of  the  greater  efficiency  of  the 
ration. 


CHAPTER  IX 

BASING  STANDARDS  ON  QUALITY  OF 
MILK 

Oversupply  of  Protein. — While  the  old  German 
standards  have  been  used  generally  and  are  still  the 
most  popular  in  this  country,  many  investigators 
now  hold  that  the  protein  requirements  are  higher 
than  practical  experience  indicates  as  being  neces- 
sary. This  is  particularly  the  case  with  dairy  cows. 
Many  of  our  most  successful  dairymen  have  ob- 
tained as  satisfactory  results  and  at  less  cost  by  us- 
ing smaller  amounts  of  protein  in  the  rations  as 
when  they  literally  follow  the  Wolff  feeding 
standard. 

The  fact  is,  all  good  dairymen  use  the  balanced 
ration.  Many  may  not  do  this  intentionally,  but 
the  feeds  they  provide  follow  more  or  less  the  stand- 
ards and  furnish  approximately  the  requisite 
amounts  of  the  digestible  nutrients.  The  feeding 
stuffs  available  admit  of  this.  With  corn  silage, 
clover  hay,  cowpea  hay,  alfalfa,  corn  stover,  mixed 
hay,  the  oil  meals  and  the  factory  by-products,  the 
food  requirements  are  met  within  reasonable  limits, 
even  though  the  feeder  may  be  unaware  of  the  fact. 
It  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  when  these  rations 
are  analyzed  those  netting  the  most  profit  often 
show  less  protein  than  what  the  old  standards  really 
call  for. 


76 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


It  must  be  remembered  that  these  standards  were 
made  many  years  ago  when  scientific  appliances 
were  less  adequate  than  now,  and  when  little  was 
known  about  either  food  or  animals.  The  experi- 
ments were  also  made  with  German  feeds  when 
given  to  German  animals,  a  circumstance  that  may 


tter  broduced  from 
Idollati  worth  e\  feed 
8.9  Ibs. 


JLAGE-GRAI! 

FOR 
JAIRY  COWS 


5.  Ibs.  Corn 


AVERAGE  DAILY 
RATION 

Consumed  by  each  cow 
fed. the  silage  ration 


AVERAGE  DAILY 

RATION 

Consumed  byeach  cow 
fed  the  special  grain  ration 


IT  PAYS  TO  GIVE  THE  RIGHT  FEED 

Two  rations  for  dairy  cows  have  been  compared.  From  the  one  8.9  pounds 
of  butter  were  produced  from  one  dollar's  worth  of  feed  while  from  the 
other  but  5.28  pounds  of  butter  was  obtained  from  one  dollar's  worth  of 
feed.  This  shows  how  two  rations  may  cost  the  same  and  one  may  be 
worth  a  great  deal  more  for  final  returns. 


BASING  STANDARDS  ON  QUALITY  OF  MILK  77 

be  sufficient  to  modify  the  standards  when  American 
feeds  are  given  American-raised  live  stock. 

Another  factor  that  enters  into  the  problem  is 
the  ever-increasing  improved  quality  of  our  farm 
animals.  On  the  same  food,  as  Armsby  has  deter- 
mined, the  pure-bred  steer  will  make  better  gains 
than  the  scrub.  If  our  farm  animals  are  selected  for 
high  production,  are  we  not  warranted  in  contribut- 
ing some  part  of  this  increase  to  the  digestive  appa- 
ratus of  the  well-bred  animal  ?  If  the  selected  strain 
is  better  in  other  respects,  does  it  not  improve  also 
in  ability  to  digest  and  utilize  food  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage? Moreover,  our  feeding  stuffs  are  grown 
under  different  soil  and  climatic  conditions  and  are  fed 
under  different  environments,  and  these  may  account 
in  part  for  the  higher  efficiency  of  our  feeding  stuffs. 

Haecker's  Investigations. — After  a  study  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country  of  dairy  rations  some  of 
which  demonstrate  very  practically  that  less  protein 
would  give  the  same  results,  Professor  Haecker  of 
the  Minnesota  station  undertook  a  series  of  experi- 
ments to  determine,  if  possible,  just  what  the  food 
requirements  are  when  dairy  cows  are  cared 
for  under  average  conditions.  The  results  sug- 
gested by  these  experiments  are  the  following : 

1.  That  less  protein  is  required  in  the  ration  than 

called  for  in  the  old  standard  for  dairy  cows. 

2.  That  the  food  nutrients  should  correspond  to 

the  quantity  of  milk  given. 

3.  That  the  amount  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  must 

be  given  due  weight  in  providing  the  food 
nutrients. 


78 


BASING  STANDARDS  ON   QUALITY  OF  MILK 


79 


4.  That  size  and  weight  of  the  animal  influence  the 
food  requirements  similarly  as  worked  out  in 
the  old  standards. 

The  Haecker  Standard  is  based  on  two  general 
propositions :  First,  the  maintenance  requirements 
of  a  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds;  and,  second,  an 
additional  and  shifting  allowance  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents that  is  dependent  on  the  per  cent  of  butter  fat 
contained  in  the  milk.  The  maintenance  factor  is 
0.7  pound  of  protein,  0.7  pound  of  carbohydrates 
and  o.i  pound  of  fat.  For  cows  weighing  more 
than  1,000  pounds  these  quantities  are  proportionately 
increased,  and  for  cows  weighing  less  than  1,000  pounds 
they  are  proportionately  decreased.  If,  for  instance,  a 
cow  weighs  1,100  pounds,  the  amounts  of  each  nutri- 
ent for  maintenance  would  be  as  follows :  Protein,  .77 
pound;  carbohydrates,  .77  pound;  and  fat,  .11  pound. 
The  additional  food  requirements  are  dependent 
on  the  quantity  and  the  fat  content  of  the  milk  as 
arranged  below : 

NUTRIENTS  REQUIRED  BY  THE   HAECKER  STANDARD 


For  milk  production 

In  accordance  with  weight 
of  cow 

Is 

0 

0) 

c 

EC 

0) 

O<H 

0 

O  oS 
,Q  S-, 

be 

°3 

o  d 

(H  Jl5 

o 

40 

<3J 

0 

JM  'U 

-t-> 

k£ 

£ 

uJa 

& 

£ 

£ 

OJ3 

& 

3.0 

.04 

.19 

.015 

600 

.42 

4.2 

.06 

3.5 

.042 

.21" 

.016 

700 

.49 

4.9 

.07 

4.0 

.046 

.23 

.018 

800 

.56 

5.6 

.08 

4.5 

.049 

.26 

.020 

900 

.63 

6.3 

.09 

5.0 

.052 

.27 

.021 

1,000 

.70 

7.0 

.10 

5.5 

.055 

.29 

.022 

1,100 

.77 

7.7 

.11 

6.0 

.057 

.31 

.024 

1,200 

.84 

8.4 

.12 

8o 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


How  to  Establish  a  Standard. — It  will  be  observed 
that  no  definite  standard  is  provided.  It  all  depends 
on  what  the  maintenance  requirements  are,  what 
amount  of  milk  the  daily  yield  is,  and  on  the  per 
cent  of  butter  fat  contained.  Assuming  that  a  cow 
weighing  1,000  pounds  daily  gives  22  pounds  of 
milk,  which  tests  5  per  cent  fat,  what  will  be  the 
actual  requirements  of  digestible  nutrients  accord- 
ing to  the  Haecker  standard?  The  first  step  is  to 
consult  the  table  for  the  nutrient  allowance  as  given 
for  milk  of  the  grade  under  consideration.  This 
we  find  to  be  as  follows:  Protein,  0.052;  carbohy- 
drates, 0.27;  and  fat,  0.021.  But  the  cow  gives  22 
pounds  daily,  in  which  case  the  quantities  for  one 
pound  will  be  multiplied  by  22  to  meet  the  real  daily 
production.  The  form  is  as  follows: 

In  1  In  22 

pound  pounds 

Protein     051  x  22    =    1.12 

Carbohydrates    27     x  22   =   5.95 

Fat    021x22=      .46 

These  amounts  added  to  what  is  required  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds  and 
giving  22  pounds  of  five  per  cent  milk  are  shown  in 
the  table  following: 


Digestible  nutrients 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Maintenance    requirements 

.70 
1.12 

1.82 

7.00 
5.95 

12.95 

.10 
.46 

.56 

Totals    

BASING  STANDARDS  ON   QUALITY  OF   MILK  8l 

Compared  with  Wolff  Standard. — From  this  it  is 
observed  that  by  the  Haecker  standard  when  a  cow 
weighs  1,000  pounds  and  gives  daily  22  pounds  of  5 
per  cent  milk  she  will  require  1.82  pounds  of  pro- 
tein, 12.95  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  .56  pound 
of  fat.  The  Wolff  standard  calls  for  2.5  pounds  of 
protein,  13  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  .5  pound 
of  fat,  which  conforms  very  nearly  to  the  Haecker 
standard  in  all  but  the  protein,  where  a  difference 
of  .68  pound  is  observed. 


CHAPTER  X 

COMPUTING  RATIONS  ON  BASIS  OF 
STARCH  VALUES 

Starch  as  the  Standard  Nutrient. — In  the  German 
investigations  with  fattening  oxen  conducted  by 
Kellner  typical  representatives  of  the  several  food 
nutrients  were  obtained  and  added  one  at  a  time  to 
a  ration  that  gave  a  slight  gain  in  weight.  The 
amounts  of  lean  meat  and  fat  were  determined  both 
before  and  after  the  addition  of  the  extra  food.  The 
difference  between  the  two  gains  was  then  assumed 
as  being  a  reasonable  measure  of  the  fattening  effect 
of  the  added  food.  After  repeated  trials  it  seemed 
advisable  to  use  starch  as  a  standard  by  which  other 
nutrients  or  feeding  stuffs  might  be  measured.  The 
use  of  this  nutrient  in  this  way  has  given  rise  to  the 
term  starch  value,  which  means  the  quantity  by 
weight  of  any  nutrient,  or  foodstuff,  or  ration  that  is 
equivalent  to  starch  for  fattening  or  other  produc- 
tive purposes. 

Starch  Value  Illustrated. — In  one  of  Kellner's  ex- 
periments, a  certain  sample  of  linseed  cake  was 
found  to  contain  34.5  per  cent  of  digestible  protein ; 
26.1  per  cent  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  including 
the  fiber;  and  8.4  per  cent  of  digestible  fat.  When 
loo  pounds  of  this  was  fed  to  a  fattening  ox,  it  was 
found  that  the  increase  was  the  same  as  when  77 
pounds  of'  starch  were  fed.  From  this  it  was  con- 


COMPUTING   RATIONS   BY   STARCH   VALUES 


eluded  that  100  pounds  of  linseed  cake  have  a  starch 
value,  or  starch  equivalent,  of  77  pounds.  Other 
substances — gluten,  earthnut  oil,  potato  starch,  cane 
sugar  and  pulped  rye  straw — were  all  used  and  the 
weight  of  fat  produced  per  100  pounds  of  the  food 
ingredient  digested  was  obtained,  showing  averages 
as  follows:  Pure  protein,  23.5  pounds;  fat,  59.8 
pounds ;  potato  starch,  24.8  pounds ;  cane  sugar,  18.8 
pounds;  and  crude  fiber,  25.3  pounds. 

Relative  Starch  Values. — Kellner  has  devised  a 
method  for  calculation  of  values  based  on  the  fat- 
producing  ability  of  starch.  He  puts  starch  at  100 
and  grades  the  other  nutrients  to  starch  in  accord- 
ance with  their  fat-producing  values.  Using  starch 
as  the  unit  of  measure,  the  following  values  of  the 
other  nutrients  were  found  to  be  as  follows : 


Nutrient 

Relative  starch  values 

In   100  pounds 

In  1  pound 

Starch       

100 
102 
76 
94 
241 
212 

191 

1.00 
1.02 
.76 
.94 
2.41 
2.12 

1.91 

Pulped   fiber    

Pure  protein 

Fat  (seeds  of  certain  plants) 
Fat   (other  seeds,  etc.)    
Fat  (coarse  fodders,  chaff, 
roots)    

Here  we  see  that  fat  or  oil  ranks  first,  ranging 
from  1.91  in  roots,  chaff  and  coarse  fodders  to  2.41 
in  the  important  seeds  or  their  by-products,  like  the 
oil  meals.  Sugar  is  decidedly  inferior  to  starch,  the 
inferiority  being  due,  it  is  claimed,  to  fermentation 
while  this  nutrient  is  in  the  digestive  tract.  Protein  is 


84  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

nearly  on  a  par  with  starch.  The  fiber,  when  made  easily 
digestible  by  pulping,  is  almost  exactly  equal  to  starch. 
How  to  Obtain  Starch  Value. — By  means  of  the 
above  table  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  calculate  the 
starch  value  of  any  feeding  stuff  or  ration.  The  form 
is  as  follows:  Multiply  the  digestible  protein  by  .94; 
add  to  this  the  carbohydrates,  fiber,  and  the  fat  after 
multiplying  the  digestible  fat  by  the  percentage  cor- 


TYPICAL  STEER  FOR  FEEDING 

In  planning  to  fatten  beeves  make  certain  that  the  feeding  stock  is  of  a  high 
grade.    This  steer  is  a  fancy  selected  feeder. 

responding  to  its  source.    Expressed  arithmetically 
we  have  the  following : 

(Digestible  protein  x  .94)  +_  digestible  carbohy- 
drates +  digestible  fiber  +  (digestible  fat  X 
2.41  or  2.12  or  1.91)  =  starch  value  of  100 
pounds. 

Using  the  digestible  nutrients  in  linseed  cake,  as 
previously  given,  we  have  the  following : 

(34-5  X  .94)  +  26.1  +  (8.4  X  24)  =  787 


COMPUTING   RATIONS   BY   STARCH   VALUES  85 

Thus  the  78.7  pounds  represent  the  calculated 
starch  value  of  100  pounds  of  linseed  cake,  which 
actually  had  the  same  fattening  increase  as  77 
pounds  of  starch. 

Actual  Starch  Value  Below  Calculated  Starch 
Value. — When  put  to  actual  tests  the  calculated 
starch  values  failed  to  show  an  increase  in  produc- 
tion that  the  values  really  indicated  them  to  possess. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  with  foods  containing 
much  fiber.  The  difference  is  accounted  for  in  the 
work  occasioned  in  digesting  the  foodstuff.  Foods 
like  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  corn,  etc.,  possess 
little  fiber,  and  therefore,  the  work  of  mastication 
and  digestion  requires  only  a  small  part  of  the  nutri- 
ents contained  in  them  for  their  necessary  but  un- 
productive purposes.  Foods  like  wheat  bran,  oat 
straw,  hay,  etc.,  on  the  other  hand,  require  much 
labor  in  the  digestive  processes,  and  consequently 
much  of  their  nutriment  is  used  up  in  this  way. 

Kellner  has  met  this  difficulty  by  assigning  co- 
efficients of  availability  to  each  feeding  stuff  based 
on  its  calculated  and  actual  starch  values.  Some  of 
these  are  given  on  the  next  page. 

Considerable  variation  is  here  noted.  The  oil 
meals,  which  carry  little  fiber,  are  very  largely  avail- 
able on  the  basis  of  their  calculated  starch  values. 
Wheat  bran  has  more  fiber  and  its  coefficient  of 
availability  drops  to  77.  The  more  fibrous  meadow 
hay  drops  to  70,  while  oat  and  wheat  straw,  with 
much  fiber,  go  down  to  61  and  29  respectively. 

Calculating  Starch  Values  on  Basis  of  Availabil- 
ity.— To  reduce  the  calculated  starch  values  to  their 


86 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


actual  value  as  indicated  by  the  availability  of  the 
digestible  nutrients,  the  following  method  is  pur- 
sued: Multiply  the  digestible  protein  by  its  starch 
equivalent;  add  to  this  the  digestible  carbohydrates, 
fiber,  and  the  fats  after  the  fat  has  been  multiplied 
by  its  starch  equivalent;  then  multiply  this  sum  by 
the  coefficient  of  availability.  The  arithmetical  re- 

OBTAINING   THE  ACTUAL   STARCH   VALUE    (KELLNER; 


Feeding  stuffs 

Starch  value  in 
100  pounds 

Percentage  of 
actual  as  against 
calculated 

Calculated 

Found 

1 

Decorticated  cotton- 
seed meal    . 

Pounds 

80.0 
74.0 
79.0 
69.0 
72.5 
60.0 
62.0 
62.0 
57.0 
43.5 
37.0 

79.0 
72.5 
77.0 
65.5 
68.0 
52.0 
52.0 
48.0 
38.0 
26.5 
9.0 

98 
98 
97 
95 
93 
87 
84 
77 
67 
60 
24 

Potatoes     

Linseed  cake    
Bean    meal    

Rve   meal    

Mangels    

Dried    grains    
TVheat  bran 

Meadow    hay    .    .  . 

Oat  straw    

Wheat  straw    

suit  will  be  the  actual  starch  value.  To  illustrate : 
In  linseed  oil  cake  containing  34.5  pounds  of 
digestible  protein,  26.1  pounds  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates and  fiber  and  8.4  pounds  of  fat  what  is 
the  actual  starch  value  of  100  pounds  of  the  fresh 
substance?  The  process  is  as  follows: 

(  (34-5  x  .94)  +  26.1  +  (8.4  x  2.4)  )  x  -97  =  76.3 

Thus  the  actual  starch  value  of  100  pounds  of  lin- 
seed cake  is  76.3. 


COMPUTING   RATIONS   BY   STARCH   VALUES 


Feeding  Stuffs  with  Much  Fiber. — Kellner  recom- 
mends that  when  coarse  feeding  stuffs  and  foods 
containing  much  fiber  are  used  the  correction  should 
be  made  in  accordance  with  the  following  schedule : 

1.  When  hay,  straw  or  green  food  contains   16 
per  cent  or  more  of  crude  fiber,  reduce  the  uncor- 
rected  calculated  starch  value  by  0.58  for  each  per 
cent  present. 

2.  When  chaff  contains  not  more  than  4  per  cent 
of  crude  fiber,  reduce  by  0.29. 


ALFALFA  READY  FOR  CUTTING 

Our  most  profitable  farm  crop  is  alfalfa.  Fed  green,  preserved  in  the 
silo,  ground  into  meal,  or  used  as  hay,  it  is  adapted  to  all  classes  and  is 
good  for  all  seasons. 

3.  When  green  foods  contain  between  4  and  16 
per  cent  reduce  as  follows :  For  6  per  cent  of  crude 
fiber  reduce  by  0.34  for  each  per  cent;  for  8  per 
cent,  0.38 ;  for  10  per  cent,  0.43 ;  for  12  per  cent,  0.48 ; 
and  for  14  per  cent,  0.53  starch  value. 

To  illustrate  the  manner  of  making  these  reduc- 
tions let  us  assume  clover  hay  contains  5.4  per  cent 


88  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

of  digestible  protein,  38  per  cent  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates and  fiber,  the  total  crude  fiber  being  25 
per  cent;  and  1.5  per  cent  fat.  The  process  is  as 
follows : 

Starch  value  of  100  pounds  =  (5.4  X  -94)  +  (38  — 
(25  X  0.58)   +   (1.5  X   1.9)  =  30-9  pounds. 

The  protein  is  multiplied  by  .94,  the  starch  equiv- 
alent for  protein;  the  carbohydrates  and  fiber  are 
reduced  in  accordance  with  the  reduction  factor  as 
assigned  for  the  per  cent  of  the  total  crude  fiber; 
the  fat  is  multiplied  by  1.9,  the  starch  equivalent 
for  fat  in  clover  hay.  When  these  changes  are  made 
the  starch  value  of  100  pounds  of  clover  hay  is  found 
to  be  30.9  pounds. 

In  case  a  green  fodder  is  used  the  process  is  very 
similar.  Take  green  alfalfa  as  an  example,  the 
digestible  nutrients  contained  in  it  being  as  follows : 
Digestible  protein,  2  per  cent;  digestible  carbohy- 
drates and  fiber,  9  per  cent;  total  crude  fiber,  7  per 
cent ;  digestible  fat,  0.5  per  cent. 
Starch  value  of  100  pounds  =  (2  X  -94)  +  (9  —  (7 
X  0.36)  +  (0.5  X  i-9)  =9-3I  pounds. 

Starch  Values  for  All  Classes  of  Stock.— While 
Kellner  obtained  his  results  from  fattening  oxen,  it 
is  believed  the  starch  values  will  apply  equally  well 
to  all  classes  of  animals  and  for  all  kinds  of  produc- 
tive purposes,  provided,  of  course,  enough  protein  is 
furnished  to  meet  the  body  requirements  for  this 
food  nutrient.  A  reasonable  amount  of  fat  is  also 
necessary  if  the  full  starch  value  of  any  combination 
of  feeding  stuffs  is  to  be  secured. 

Feeding  Standards  on  Basis  of  Starch  Values. — In 


COMPUTING   RATIONS    BY    STARCH    VALUES 


the  table  below  are  given  the  daily  food  require- 
ments for  the  several  classes  of  farm  animals  as 
devised  by  Kellner  and  on  the  basis  of  1,000  pounds 
live  weight: 

FOOD  REQUIREMENTS  ON  BASIS  OF  STARCH  VALUES 
(KELLNER) 


Kind  of  animal 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Starch 
values 

Cattle 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Maintenance   of   steer 

15  to  21 

0.6 

6.0 

Fattening  steer    

30 

2.0 

15.0 

Age        Live  weight 

6  to  12  mos         550 

26 

3.2 

14.4 

12tol8mos          770 

26 

2.6 

11.2 

18  to  24  mos         950 

26 

1.8 

10.0 

Sheep 

6  to    7  mos            66 

31 

4.0 

17.0 

7  to    9  mos            88 

30 

3.5 

16.0 

9  to  11  mos         110 

28 

3.0 

15.0 

Pigs 

2  to    3  mos           44 

44 

6.6 

33.8 

3  to    5  mos          110 

36 

5.6 

32.0 

5  to    6  mos          143 

32 

4.4 

26.5 

6  to    8  mos         198 

28 

3.9 

24.5 

9  to  12  mos         286 

25 

3.2 

19.9 

Last    fattening   stage 

26 

2.6 

19.8 

Milk  cows 

Yielding  20  Ibs  milk 

25  to  29 

1.6  to  1.9 

12.5  to  14.  5 

Yielding  30  Ibs  milk 

27  to  33 

2.2  to  2.5 

11.8  to  13.9 

Yielding  40  Ibs  milk 

27  to  34 

2.8  to  3.2 

13.9  to  16.6 

Horses 

Light  work   .  .           ... 

18  to  23 

1.0 

9  2 

Medium    work 

21  to  26 

1.4 

n!e 

Heavy  work   

23  to  28 

2.0 

15.0 

See  Appendix  for  complete   list  of  Kellner  standards. 


Method  of  Computing  a  Ration. — There  are  avail- 
able for  feeding  a  herd  of  cows  clover  hay,  oats, 
green  alfalfa  and  linseed  cake.  These  feeding  stuffs, 
if  of  good  average  quality,  will  furnish  in  100  pounds 
the  nutrients  as  given  on  the  next  page. 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Total 
crude 
fiber 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

38.0 
45.0 
32.0 
9.0 

Fat 

Clover  hay  

84.7 
89.0 
90.8 
28.2 

5.41 
9.0 
25.0 
2.0 

1.5 
5.0 
9.5 

5.0 

25.0 
7.0 

Oats    

Linseed  cake   .  . 
Alfalfa    (green) 

The  cows  average,  let  us  say,  1,000  pounds  in 
weight,  and  yield  on  an  average  30  pounds  of  milk 
daily.  According  to  the  standard  the  total  feed 
requirements  per  day  and  head  will  be  as  follows: 
Dry  matter,  27  to  33  pounds ;  digestible  protein,  2.2 
to  2.5  pounds;  starch  value,  n.8  to  13.9  pounds. 

The  first  step  is  to  determine  the  starch  value  of 
each  of  these  feeding  stuffs.  Taking  the  feeds  in 
order,  the  following  calculation  will  be  made : 

1.  Starch  value,  100  pounds  linseed  cake  =  (  (25 

X  .94)  +  32  +  (9-5  X  2.4)  )  X  -97  =  76.3 

2.  Starch  value,  100  pounds  oats  =  (  (9  X  -94)  + 

45  +  (5  X  2.1)  )  X  -95  =  60.8 

3.  Starch  value,  100  pounds  clover  hay  =  (5.4  X 

.94)  +  (38  —  (25  X  0.58)  +  (1.5  X  1.9)  = 

30-9 

4.  Starch  value,   100  pounds  green  alfalfa  =   (2 

X  .94)  +  (9  —  (7  X  36)  +_  (0.5  X  1.9)  = 

9-3i 

The  next  step  in  the  construction  of  the  ration  is 
to  choose  the  quantity  of  each  feed  that  is  to  be  used. 
This  will  be  governed  by  what  is  good  practice, 
leaving  the  actual  balancing  of  the  ration  to  the  con- 
centrates that  are  to  be  supplied  in  addition.  As  a 


COMPUTING  RATIONS   BY   STARCH   VALUES 


trial  we  will  use  12  pounds  of  clover  hay,  20  pounds 
of  green  alfalfa  and  10  pounds  of  oats.  These, 
properly  arranged,  show  the  following: 

TRIAL  RATION  FOR   I,OOO-POUND  DAIRY  COW 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Starch 
values 

10  Ibs  clover  hay   .... 
20  Ibs  green  alfalfa  .  . 
7   Ibs    oats    

Pounds 
8.47 
5.64 
6  23 

Pounds 
0.54 
0.50 
0  63 

Pounds 
3.09 
1.86 
4.75 

Totals    

20  34 

1.67 

9  71 

Standard 

27  to  33 

2  2  to  2  5 

11  8  to  13  9 

On  comparing  with  the  standard,  it  is  found  that 
the  trial  ration  is  slightly  under  in  all  respects.  To 
correct  this  we  add  three  pounds  of  linseed  cake. 
This  done,  we  have : 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Starch 
values 

12  Ibs  clover  hay    ... 
20  Ibs  green  alfalfa.  . 
7  Ibs  oats   

Pounds 
10.11 
5.64 
6.23 

Pounds 
0.65 
0.50 
0  63 

Pounds 
3.70 
1.86 
4.76 

3  Ibs  linseed  cake 

2  94 

0  75 

2  38 

Totals    

24  92 

2  43 

12  70 

Standard   .    .    . 

27  to  33 

2  2  to  2  5 

11  8  to  13  9 

The  second  trial  ration  meets  the  requirements 
for  protein  and  starch  values,  but  is  slightly  under 
in  dry  matter.  From  this  we  see  that  10  pounds  of 


1 

92  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

clover  hay,  20  pounds  of  green  alfalfa,  7  pounds  of 
oats  and  3  pounds  of  linseed  cake  meal  make  a  sat- 
isfactory ration  for  dairy  cows  giving  30  pounds  of 
milk  daily  and  weighing  1,000  pounds.  This  is  in 
accordance  with  the  Kellner  standard,  is  in  line  with 
good  practice,  and  in  general  is  consistent  with  the 
other  standards  used  in  the  calculations  of  rations 
for  dairy  cows. 


CHAPTER  XI 

USING  ENERGY  VALUES  FOR  COMPUTING 
RATIONS 

Feeding  Stuffs  Possess  Energy. — When  food  is 
consumed  and  utilized  in  the  animal  system  vital 
and  muscular  energy  is  produced.  Any  feeding 
stuff,  therefore,  is  fuel  for  the  animal  that  consumes 
it.  The  chemical  energy  contained  in  that  food 
will  be  set  free  just  as  the  energy  stored  in  coal  or 
wood  or  oil  or  alcohol  is  set  free  when  burned  in  an 
engine.  In  either  case  heat  is  developed  and  work 
results. 

The  value  of  any  material  as  a  fuel  substance  will 
naturally  depend  on  how  much  chemical  energy  that 
material  contains.  Both  the  quantity  and  the  qual- 
ity must  be  determined  in  order  to  get  a  fair  meas- 
ure of  its  energy  value.  Armsby1  has  worked  out  a 
plan  for  utilizing  these  energy  values  in  feeding 
farm  animals.  He  not  only  has  prepared  tables  that 
show  the  energy  value  of  a  number  of  feeding  stuffs, 
but  has  formulated  feeding  standards  and  a  prac- 

1The  idea  of  using  energy  values  in  the  computation  of 
rations  for  farm  animals  originated  with  Dr.  Kellner  of 
Germany.  Dr.  Henry  Prentiss  Armsby,  Director  of  the  In- 
stitute of  Animal  Nutrition  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College, 
has  expressed  the  energy  value  of  the  feed  in  still  another 
manner.  Kellner  attempted  to  express  energy  value  as  starch 
value  because  this  is  so  familiarly  known.  Armsby,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  followed  the  simpler  and  more  direct  manner 
of  expressing  these  values  by  coming  out.  boldly  and  entirely 
to  the  energy  notations,  using  the  therm  as  the  unit  instead 
of  the  calorie,  simply  to  a,void  unnecessarily  large  numbers. 
Either  manner  of  expression  is  entirely  justifiable,  and  in,  the 
two  methods  the  values  are  identical. 


94 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


tical  plan  for  computing  rations  for  farm  animals 
based  on  them. 

Units  of  Measuring  Heat. — Quite  generally  the 
fuel  value  of  any  material  is  expressed  in  calories. 
A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  one 
pound  of  water  four  degrees  Fahrenheit.  In  the 


LABORATORY  WHERE  FOOD  VALUES  ARE  DETERMINED 

This   picture   gives    a  general   view   of   Armsby's   respiration    apparatus   for 
determining  the  net  energy  of  the  feeding  stuffs. 

Armsby  standards  the  fuel  or  net  energy  value  is 
expressed  in  therms.  A  therm  is  the  quantity  of  heat 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1,000  kilograms 
of  water  one  degree  centigrade;  it  equals  1,000  calo- 
ries and  therefore  represents  the  amount  of  heat 
required  to  raise  1,000  pounds  of  water  four  degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


ENERGY  VALUES  FOR  COMPUTING  RATIONS  95 

Waste  of  Chemical  Energy. — Not  all  the  energy 
contained  in  a  feeding  stuff  or  ration  is  utilized.  A 
certain  quantity  is  never  digested,  but  is  excreted  as 
dung.  Another  loss  of  chemical  energy  arises  from 
combustible  gases  due  to  fermentation  of  feed  in 
the  digestive  tract.  Still  another  source  of  lost 
energy  is  material  passing  out  of  the  system  in  urine. 
Armsby  states  that  22  per  cent  of  the  chemical  en- 
ergy of  corn  meal  and  55  per  cent  of  that  of  average 
hay  has  been  found  to  escape  in  these  ways. 

But  one  of  the  most  important  causes  of  energy 
loss  is  that  occasioned  by  the  processes  of  digestion, 
in  which  the  energy  that  is  utilized  for  fattening 
increase  or  other  productive  uses  must  be  separated 
from  the  consumed  material. 

All  of  these  factors  enter  into  the  digestive  prob- 
lem and  consume  much  of  the  contained  nutrients 
for  other  functions  than  those  of  tissue  or  fat  in- 
crease, or  fuel,  or  energy. 

Energy  Values  in  Feeds. — Feeding  stuffs  possess 
both  a  maximum  amount  of  chemical  energy  and  a 
certain  quantity  of  net  energy.  The  former  refers  to 
the  theoretical  quantity,  and  the  latter  to  that  which 
is  actually  available  for  productive  uses.  It  is  with 
the  net  energy  that  the  feeder  has  to  deal  in  the 
preparation  of  his  rations.  From  tests  made  by 
means  of  the  respiration  calorimeter  much  definite 
knowledge  has  been  obtained,  so  as  to  permit  ap- 
proximate estimates  showing  the  net  energy  in  con- 
nection with  the  total  dry  matter  and  digestible  pro- 
tein. This  is  shown  ir  the  following  table : 


96 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


DRY  MATTER,  DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN,  AND  ENERGY  VALUES 

IN  ioo  POUNDS  (ARMSBY) 


Feeding  stuffs 


Total  dry 
matter 


Digestible 
protein 


Energy 
value 


Pounds 
Green  fodder  and  silage 

Alfalfa     28.2 

Clover  (crimson)    ....  19.1 

Clover    (red)    29.2 

Corn  fodder   (green)    .  20.7 

Corn   silage    25.6 

Hungarian   grass    ....  28.! 

Rape     14.3 

Rye     23.4 

Timothy    38.4 

Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders 

Alfalfa   hay    91.6 

Clover   hay    (red)    ....  84.7 
Corn  forage,    (field 

cured    57.8 

Corn  stover    59.5 

Cowpea  hay   89.3 

Hungarian  hay 92.3 

Oat  hay 84.0 

Soy  bean  hay    88.7 

Timothy  hay 86.8 

Straws 

Oat  straw 90.8 

Rye  straw    92.! 

Wheat   straw    90.4 

Roots  and  tubers 

Carrots    11.4 

Mangel-wurzels    9.1 

Potatoes    21.1 

Rutabagas    11.4 

Turnips   9.4 

Grains 

Barley    89.1 

Corn   89.1 

Corn-aiid-cob  meal   ....  84.9 

Oats    89.0 

Pea  meal    89.5 

Rye     88.4 

Wheat    89.5 

By-products 

Brewers'  grains  (dried)  '  92.0 

Brewers'  grain   (wet) . .  24.3 

Buckwheat  middlings..  88.2 

Cottonseed  meal ,  91.8 


Pounds 

2.50 
2.19 
2.21 
0.41 
1.21 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 


6.93 
5.41 

2.13 

1.80 
8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 


1.09 
0.63 
0.37 


0.37 
0.14 
0.45 
0.88 
0.22 


8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
16.77 
8.12 
8.90 


19.04 

3.81 

22.34 

35.15 


Therms 

12.45 
11.30 
16.17 
12.44 
16.56 
14.76 
11.43 
11.63 
19.08 


34.41 
34.74 

30.53 
26.53 
42.76 
44.03 
36.97 
38.65 
33.56 


21.21 
20.87 
16.56 


7.82 
4.62 
18.05 
8.00 
5.74 


80.75 
88.84 
72.05 
66.27 
71.75 
81.72 
82.63 


60.01 
14.82 
75.92 
84.20 


ENERGY  VALUES  FOR  COMPUTING  RATIONS 


97 


Feeding    stuffs 

Total  dry 
matter 

'Digestible 
protein 

Energy 
value 

By-products  —  Continued 
Distillers'  grains  (dried) 
Principally  corn  .... 

Pounds 

93.0 
93  2 

Pounds 

21.93 
10  38 

Therms 

79.23 
60  93 

Gluten  feed    (dried).  .  . 
Gluten  meal   (Buffalo)  . 
Gluten   meal    (Chicago) 
Linseed  meal   (old 
process)    

91.9 
91.8 
90.5 

90  8 

19.95 
21.56 
33.09 

27  54 

79.32 
88.80 
78.49 

78  92 

Linseed  meal    (new 
process)         

90  1 

29  26 

74  67 

Malt  sprouts    

89  8 

12  36 

46  33 

88  2 

11  35 

56  65 

Sugar-beet  pulp  (fresh) 
Sugar-beet  pulp  (dried) 
"Wheat  bran 

10.1 
93.6 
88  1 

0.63 
6.80 
10  21 

7.77 
60.10 
48  23 

Wheat  middlings   . 

84  0 

12  79 

77  65 

REVEALING  FACTS  ABOUT  DIGESTION 

The  steer  is  harnessed  in  apparatus  as  used  by  Dr.  Armsby  in  his  digestion 
experiments. 

Requirements  for  Maintenance. — Armsby  has  in- 
cluded the  results  of  Kellner's  experiments  with  his 
own,  and  from  these  he  has  devised  certain  guides 
to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  food  requirements 
for  different  classes  of  farm  animals.  He  first  takes 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


up  the  maintenance  requirements,  or  the  amount  of 
digestible  protein  and  net  energy  necessary  for  an 
animal  when  making  no  growth  or  other  produc- 
tion, or  when  doing  no  work.  Standards  for  swine 
are  not  included,  as  no  satisfactory  figures  are  avail- 
able. The  maintenance  standards  suggested  are  as 
follows : 

MAINTENANCE  STANDARD  FOR  CATTLE,  HORSES  AND 
SHEEP  (ARMSBY) 


Cattle 

Horses 

Sheep 

3 

3 

3 

•g 

j>» 

b 

-M 

>> 

;>'aj 

II 

If 

8.2 

5l 

l! 

If 

bco 

5s 

If 

Lbs 

Lbs 

Therms 

Lbs 

Therms 

Lbs 

Lbs 

Therms 

150 

0.15 

1.70 

0.30 

2.00 

20 

0.23 

0.30 

250 

0.20 

2.40 

0.40 

2.80 

40 

0.05 

0.54 

500 

0.30 

,      3.80 

0.60 

4.40 

60 

0.07 

0.71 

750 

0.40 

4.95 

0.80 

5.80 

80 

0.09 

0.87 

1,000 

0.50 

6.00 

1.00 

7.00 

100 

0.10 

1.00 

1,250 

0.60 

7.00 

1.20 

8.15 

120 

0.11 

1.13 

1,500 

0.65 

7.90 

1.30 

9.20 

140 

0.13 

1.25 

Requirements  for  Growth. — Young  animals  con- 
sume more  food  than  adult  animals  in  relation  to  the 
weight  of  the  body.  They  lay  on  much  less  fat  and 
carry  much  more  water  in  their  increase.  As  they 
grow  older  and  exercise  more  freely,  additional  sup- 
plies of  food  are  necessary  for  the  production  of  heat 
and  mechanical  work.  These  demands  give  rise  to 
a  constantly  changing  balance  of  food  nutrients. 
The  following  estimates  are  for  growing  cattle  and 
sheep : 


ENERGY  VALUES  FOR  COMPUTING  RATIONS  99 

ENERGY  VALUE  OF  ONE  POUND  OF  GAIN  IN  WEIGHT 
(ARMSBY) 


Age 

Energy  value 

Months 

Therms 

3 

1.50 

6 

1.75 

12 

2.00 

18 

2.50 

24 

2.75 

30 

3.00 

These  figures  apply  to  growth  only.  The  require- 
ments for  maintenance  must  be  added  to  get  the 
amount  necessary  for  both  purposes.  This  has  been 
done  in  the  following  table : 


DAILY  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  GROWTH  AND  MAINTENANCE 

(ARMSBY) 


Cattle 

Sheep 

£ 

3 

5 

3 

>> 

^_l 

fc. 

0) 

be 

4 

,C 
<D  be 

£* 

n4£ 

22 
So 

Pa 

$„ 
v  3 

£; 

0> 

be 

<4 

ft 

o>  be 

5  "3 

Jfc 

WJjJ 

a§ 

5a 

V" 

I! 

Mo's 

Lbs 

Lbs 

Therms 

Mo's 

Lbs 

Lbs 

Therms 

3 

275 

1.10 

5.0 

6 

70 

0.30 

1.30 

6 

425 

1.30 

6.0 

9 

90 

0.25 

1.40 

12 

650 

1.65 

7.0 

12 

110 

0.23 

1.40 

18 

850 

1.70 

7.5 

15 

130 

0.23 

1.50 

24 

1,000 

1.75 

8.0 

18 

145 

0.22 

1.60 

30 

1,100 

1.65 

8.0 

Requirements  for  Fattening. — Armsby  estimates 
that  fairly  mature  steers  from  two  to  three  years  of 


IOO  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

age  will  require  approximately  3.5  therms  a  pound 
of  gain  in  live  weight. 

Requirements  for  Milk. — Armsby  estimates  that 
for  the  production  of  milk  containing  13  per  cent 
of  total  solids  and  4  per  cent  of  fat  approximately 
0.3  of  one  therm  of  production  value  in  the  feed  will 
be  required  daily. 

Requirements  for  Work. — The  estimate  below  is 
for  work  horses  weighing  1,000  pounds.  Both  the 
work  and  maintenance  requirements  are  included : 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  WORK  HORSES    (ARMSBY) 


Kind  of  work 

Digestible  protein 

Energy  value 

Pounds 
1  0 

Therms 
9  80 

For  medium  work   .  .  . 
F"or  heavy  work     .... 

1.4 
2  0 

12.40 
16.00 

Computing  a  Ration  for  Steers. — Suppose  a  steer 
weighing  1,000  pounds  is  to  be  brought  to  weigh 
1,500  pounds  in  250  days.  This  will  mean  an  aver- 
age daily  gain  of  two  pounds,  just  what  in  practice 
is  considered  satisfactory.  Our  problem  is  to  pre- 
pare a  suitable  ration  at  reasonable  cost  to  do  this. 
How  shall  we  proceed? 

As  a  satisfactory  starting  point  we  will  need  to 
determine  the  number  of  therms  of  energy  value 
needed  for  two  pounds  of  daily  increase.  Taking  the 
standard,  3.5  therms  for  one  pound  of  gain,  this  steer 
would  require  7  therms  of  energy  value  each  day 
as  the  fattening  requirement.  Taking  1,250  pounds 
as  the  average  weight  during  the  feeding  period, 


ENERGY  VALUES  FOR  COMPUTO^ CATIONS jJ  '  Itt 

the  maintenance  requirements  as  set  forth  by  Arms- 
by  will  be  7  therms  for  an  animal  making  this  daily 
gain  in  weight.  This,  added  to  what  is  required  for 
fattening  increase,  will  bring  the  total  energy  re- 
quirement to  14  therms  of  net  energy  for  each  day 
up  to  the  time  when  the  steer  weighs  1,250  pounds. 
The  protein  requirements  for  this  steer,  as  given 


MATURE  STEERS  NEARLY  READY  FOR  MARKET 

Many  steers  are  finished  at  pasture,  the  grain  supply  being  increased  as 
the  fattening  period  advances.  Pastyre  as  the  sole  feed  is  not  .best  for 
finishing  fattening  animals. 

previously,  are  1.65  pounds  daily  The  complete 
standard,  then,  will  be  as  follows :  Digestible  pro- 
tein, 1.65  pounds;  energy  value,  14  therms. 

Our  second  step  is  to  select  the  feeding  stuffs  and 
to  combine  them  in  such  proportion  as  will  best 
meet  the  feeding  standard.  Let  us  assume  that 
clover  hay  is  available  as  roughage,  and  corn  and 
cob  meal  as  a  concentrate.  In  practice  we  know 


IO2 


•FEEBlNG   FARM    ANIMALS 


that  10  pounds  of  hay  and  15  pounds  of  grain  are 
often  used  in  that  proportion  as  a  beef  ration.  Our 
problem  is  to  learn  how  nearly  this  combination  of 
the  amounts  given  approaches  the  standard  and  if 
any  additional  food  may  be  given  so  as  to  improve 
on  the  ration.  By'  consulting  the  table  giving  the 
protein  and  energy  values  of  feeding  stuffs,  we  find 
that  in  100  pounds  of  clover  hay  there  are  34.7 
therms  energy  value,  and  in  corn  and  cob  meal  72.0 
therms.  Therefore  we  have  : 

Therms 

In  100  pounds  of  clover  hay   34.7 

In  150  pounds  of  corn  and  cob  meal   108.0 

In  250   pounds   of   feed    142.7 

In  1    pound    565 

To  supply  14  therms  divide  14  by  .565  to  obtain 
the  number  of  pounds  of  this  combination  for  the 
daily  energy  requirements. 

Thus,  14  -f-  .565  =  24.8  pounds,  of  which  1%5,  or 
9.9  pounds,  is  to  be  clover  hay  and  1%s,  or  14.9 
pounds,  is  to  be  corn  and  cob  meal,  or  10  and  15  pounds 
each  approximately.  This  quantity  meets  the  energy 
requirement,  but  is  there  enough  or  too  much  protein  ? 
This  will  be  determined  by  proceeding  as  below : 


Digestible 

nutrients 

Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Protein 

Energy 
value 

10  pounds  clover  hay   
15   pounds   cprn   and  cob  meal 

Totals          

Pounds 

8.87 
9.34 

18  21 

Pounds 
0.54 
0.68 

1  22 

Therms 
3.47 
10.81 

14.28 

Standard 

1  65 

14  00 

ENERGY  VALUES  FOR  COMPUTING  RATIONS         IO3 


Here  we  find  the  protein  is  under,  and  the  energy 
value  slightly  over,  the  daily  requirements.  The 
ration  is,  therefore,  not  quite  satisfactory.  To  im- 
prove it  we  will  reduce  the  corn  and  cob  meal  by 
three  pounds  and  add  two  pounds  of  cottonseed 
meal.  The  ration  will  then  be  as  follows : 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Protein 

Energy 
value 

10  pounds  clover  hay  

Pounds 

8.87 
7.47 
1.83 

18.17 

Pounds 
0.54 
0.55 
0.70 

Therms 
3.47 
8.65 
1.68 

13.80 

12  pounds   corn   and   cob  meal. 
2  pounds  cottonseed  meal.  .  .  . 

Totals 

1.79 

Standard     

1.65 

14.00 

By  substituting  two  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  for 
three  pounds  of  corn  and  cob  meal  the  ration  has 
been  greatly  improved,  since  the  deficiency  of  pro- 
tein has  been  brought  up  to,  and  even  beyond,  the 
standard.  The  revised  ration  almost  exactly  approx- 
imates the  standard  in  energy  value,  and,  also,  the 
quantity  of  dry  matter  is  easily  handled  by  a  steer 
of  this  age  and  weight. 

Computing  a  Ration  for  Dairy  Cows. — If  a  ration 
is  to  be  computed  for  dairy  cows  the  first  step  will 
be  to  determine  the  food  requirements.  If  it  is  as- 
sumed that  the  cows  weigh  1,000  pounds  and  yield 
daily  25  pounds  of  milk,  there  will  be  needed  0.5 
of  a  pound  of  digestible  protein  and  6.00  therms  of 
energy  for  maintenance.  For  the  production  of  25 


104 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


pounds  of  milk  there  will  be  needed  1.25  (0.05  X 
25)  pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  7.5  (0.3  X  25) 
therms  of  energy  value.  The  total  daily  food  require- 
ments per  animal  will  therefore  be : 


Purpose 

Digestible  protein 

Energy  value 

For  maintenance    

Pounds 
0  50 

Therms 
6  00 

For  25  pounds  milk   .... 
Totals    

1.25 
1  75 

7.50 
13  50 

The  second  step  in  the  computation  is  to  decide 
on  the  kind  and  quantity  of  the  feeding  stuffs. 
Assuming  that  corn  stover,  corn  silage,  and  clover 
hay  are  available,  we  will  use  such  quantities  as 
have  been  found  in  practice  to  be  satisfactory, 
although  used  in  varying  quantities.  As  a  starting 
point,  we  will  use  5  pounds  of  corn  stover,  10  pounds 
of  clover  hay  and  30  pounds  of  corn  silage.  Con- 
sulting the  table  giving  the  digestible  protein  and 
energy  values,  we  find  that  in  100  pounds  of  each 
of  the  above  feeding  stuffs  the  following  will  be  fur- 
nished : 


Feeding    stuffs 

Dry  matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Energy  value 

Corn  stover 

Pounds 

59  5 

Pounds 
1  80 

Therms 
26  53 

Clover  hay 

84  7 

5  41 

34  74 

Corn   silage    

25.6 

1.21 

16.56 

We  now  calculate  the  amounts  of  digestible  pro- 
tein and  of  energy  contained  in  the  quantity  of  each 
feed  selected  and  arrange  them  as  below : 


ENERGY    VALUES    FOR    COMPUTING    RATIONS       IO5 


TRYING  OUT  THE  RATION  COMPARED  WITH  THE  ARMSBY 
STANDARD 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible 
protein 

.Energy 
value 

Pounds 
2  97 

Pounds 
0  09 

Therms 
1  33 

8  47 

0  54 

3  47 

30  pounds  corn  silage  

7  68 

0  36 

4  95 

Totals 

19  12 

0  99 

9  75 

Standard     

1.75 

13.50 

Compared  with  the  standard  we  find  a  deficiency 
in  every  instance,  therefore  it  will  now  be  necessary 
to  introduce  into  the  ration  one  or  more  feeds  to  cor- 
rect the  faults  so  evident  in  this  trial  ration.  Since 
there  is  a  greater  lack  of  the  protein  than  of  energy 
value,  we  will  select  concentrates  from  among  such 
feeding  .stuffs  as  are  particularly  rich  in  protein.  Sup- 
pose we  use  I  pound  of  gluten  meal,  I  pound  of  cot- 
tonseed meal  and  3  pounds  of  dried  beet  pulp,  and 
add  these  to  the  ration. 

SECOND  TRIAL  RATION   FOR  DAIRY   COWS 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Energy 
value 

5  pounds   corn   stover    

Pounds 
2  97 

Pounds 
0.09 

Therms 
1.33 

8  47 

0  54 

3  47 

30  pounds  corn  silage         .  .  . 

7  68 

0  36 

4.95 

1  pound  cottonseed  meal   .  .  . 
1  pound  gluten  meal 

0.91 
0  91 

0.35 
0  21 

0.84 
0.88 

3  pounds  dried  beet  pulp   .  . 
Totals 

2.80 
23  74 

0.20 
1  75 

1.80 
13.27 

Standard     

1.75 

13.50 

I06  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

The  second  trial  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the 
standard.  The  protein  does  this  with  exactness, 
while  the  energy  value  is  just  slightly  under  what 
the  standard  calls  for.  This  is  of  small  importance 
since,  as  explained  heretofore,  it  is  not  expected  that 
the  rations  shall  be  made  to  meet  the  standards  with 
mathematical  accuracy.  The  aim  should  be  to  ap- 
proximate them.  From  this  we  learn  that,  accord- 
ing to  the  Armsby  standard,  a  satisfactory  ration  for 
milk  cows  weighing  1,000  pounds  and  yielding  25 
pounds  of  milk  daily  may  consist  of  5  pounds  of  corn 
stover,  10  pounds  of  clover  hay,  30  pounds  of  silage, 
i  pound  of  cottonseed  meal,  i  pound  of  gluten  meal, 
and  3  pounds  of  dried  beet  pulp. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  COST  OF  THE  RATION 

The  Practical  Question. — Secondary  only  in  im- 
portance to  a  proper  balance  of  the  feeds  is  the  cost 
''of  the  ration.  It  is  much  to  have  a  ration  approxi- 
mate the  theoretical  standard,  since  it  is  necessary 
to  get  the  digestible  nutrients  in  reasonable  propor- 
tion in  order  to  obtain  success  in  the  feed  lot  or  the 
dairy  stable.  A  dairy  cow,  if  given  an  insufficient 
amount  of  protein,  will  show  the  shortage  sooner 
or  later  in  her  milk  yield ;  and  the  beef  steer,  while 
he  may  make  good  gains  by  laying  on  fat,  will  lack 
quality  at  the  block  and  will  show  gains,  likely,  at 
considerable  cost.  In  both  instances  if  some  of  the 
non-nitrogenous  feeding  stuffs  were  to  be  exchanged 
for  one  or  more  of  a  more  protein  nature,  the  pro- 
ductive ends  might  be  more  perceptible  and  the 
units  of  gain  might  be  more  cheaply  acquired. 

It  is  always  important  to  use  as  the  basis  of  every 
farm  ration  just  as  much  of  the  farm-raised  feeds  as 
is  possible.  In  the  first  place  farm  animals  provide 
a  market  right  at  home,  and  at  the  same  time  they 
are  generous  to  the  farm  because  of  the  manure  they 
return  to  the  soil.  The  less  feed  that  is  purchased 
the  less  the  labor  required  to  get  concentrated  grains 
from  the  distributing  centers.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
generally  profitable  to  use  some  of  the  mill  concen- 
trates for  purposes  of  balancing  the  ration  and  to 

107 


108 


THE    COST   OF    THE   RATION 


induce  larger  consumption  —  two  conditions  always 
consistent  with  large  production  with  any  class  of 
animals.  However,  there  is  much  objection  to  heavy 
grain  feeding,  as  every  practical  feeder  knows. 
What  profit  is  there  in  expending  much  for  grain  if 
the  additional  production  is  wholly  absorbed  in  the 
feed  bills?  Much  has  been  said  and  written  in  re- 
cent years  about  the  proper  proportion  of  grain  to 
roughage  in  the  feeding  ration.  In  the  past,  per- 
haps, the  roughage  allotment  in  proportion  to  the 
grain  was  too  large,  and  to-day  perhaps  it  is  the 
reverse. 

Two  Rations  Compared  on  Basis  of  Cost.  —  Some 
years  ago  two  rations  were  compared  in  milk  pro- 
duction at  the  Ohio  station.  One  consisted  largely 
of  a  corn-soybean-cowpea  silage,  and  mixed  hay; 
and  the  other  of  more  than  half  grain.  The  first 
produced  96.7  pounds  of  milk  for  each  100  pounds, 
based  on  the  dry  matter  contained  in  it,  and  the  sec- 
ond 81.3  pounds  of  milk  for  each  100  pounds,  based 
on  the  dry  matter  in  it.  In  the  one,  the  silage  ration, 
89  per  cent  was  of  a  roughage  nature  or  farm-raised 
food,  while  in  the  other,  43  per  cent,  or  just  about 
half  as  much,  was  farm-raised.  The  two  rations  are 
given  in  the  table  on  the  following  page. 

The  practical  question  that  arises  is  this  :  If  both 
are  available  today,  which  would  cost  the  more? 
That  depends  on  the  prices  at  which  each  could  be 
purchased;  and  each  and  every  feeder  will  need  to 
determine  that  point  for  himself.  However,  let  us 
assume  the  following  as  fair  prices  for  the  feeds  :  Corn 
silage,  $2  a  ton  ;  corn  stover,  $5  ;  mixed  hay,  $12  ; 


no 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


linseed  oil  meal,  $34;  wheat  bran,  $30;  and  corn 
meal,  $30.  At  these  prices  a  pound  of  silage  will 
be  worth  .1  cent;  of  corn  stover,  4  cent;  mixed 
hay,  .6  cent;  oil  meal,  1.7  cents;  bran,  1.5  cents;  and 
corn  meal,  1.5  cents.  The  cost  of  the  two  rations 
would  therefore  be  as  follows : 
Silage  =  (58  X  -I)  +  (6.8  X  .6)  +  (2  X  1.5)  + 

(2  X  1-5)  =  iS-88 
Grain  =  (47  X  4)  +  (64  X  -6)  +  (2.5  X  1.5)  + 

(5  X  i-5)  +  (6  X  1.5)  =  25.97 
25.97  —  15.88  =  10.09  cents,  the  difference  in  cost 

of  the  rations. 


SILAGE   VERSUS   GRAIN    FOR    MILK   COWS 


OJ 

1 

C  tn 

rl 

^  Zfl 

<utj  M 

-u   W 

•O 

d 

3 
o 

1 

*§ 

0  3 
t,  0 

T3 

'gg 
2  ° 

gS| 

11! 

& 

fa 

Qk 

u& 

zto* 

H^d, 

I  —  Silage  ration 

58.0 

Silage 

10.83 

1.37 

2.71 

5.43 

0.53 

6/8 

Mixed  hay 

5.77 

0.55 

1.90 

2.76 

0.2J 

2.0 

Oil  meal 

1.80 

0.66 

0.19 

0.77 

0.06 

2.0 

Bran 

1.76 

0.31 

0.18 

1.08 

0.08 

Total 

20.16 

2.89 

4.98 

10.04 

0.88 

II  —  Grain  ration 

4.7 

Stover 

3.29 

0.21 

1.15 

1.70 

0.06 

6.4 

Mixed   hay 

5.43 

0.52 

1.79 

2.60 

0.19 

2.5 

Oil  meal 

2.25 

0.83 

0.24 

0.96 

0.08 

5.0 

Corn  meal 

4.25 

0.46 

0.09 

3.43 

0.19 

6.0 

Bran 

5.29 

0.92 

0.54 

3.23 

0.24 

Total 

20.51 

2.94 

3.81 

11.92 

0.76 

1  In  these  rations  the  total  composition  is  given,   and  not 
the  digestible  nutrients. 


THE   COST   OF   THE   RATION  III 

Both  of  the  rations  approximate  the  standard  for 
dairy  cows,  and  both  are  equally  good  since  they 
are  productive  of  a  good  milk  yield.  Yet  when  com- 
pared from  the  standpoint  of  cost  there  is  a  differ- 
ence of  10.09  cents.  It  might  seem  a  matter  of 
small  consequence  for  a  single  day  and  a  single  cow, 
but  for  a  winter  feeding  period  of  seven  months  and 
40  cows  in  a  herd  it  assumes  a  new  importance. 
This  is  seen  when  the  simple  calculation  is  made. 
We  have— 

210  days  X  4°  cows  X  10.09  cents  =  $847.50 
Thus  the  grain  ration,  which  actually  produced 

15.4  pounds  less  milk  for  each  100  pounds  of  dry 
matter,  if  used  instead  of  the  silage  ration,  provided 
it  was  available,  would  mean  a  net  cost  of  nearly 
$850  more  than  the  other.    This  amount  is  sufficient 
to  make  this  dairy  venture  either  a  losing  or  a  profit- 
able proposition. 

Two  Rations  for  Horses  Compared. — A  common 
ration  for  horses  is  timothy  hay  and  oats.  When 
doing  severe  work  10  pounds  of  hay  and  14  pounds 
of  oats  are  commonly  recommended  and  used.  At 
prevailing  prices  of  $16  a  ton  for  hay  and  56  cents  a 
bushel  for  oats,  the  daily  cost  would  be : 
(10  X  ($16  -f-  2,000)  )  +  (14  X  (.56  ~-  32)  )  = 
32.5  cents 

At  the  prices  just  quoted  the  daily  cost  for  feed- 
ing a  medium-sized  horse  at  hard  work  would  be 

32.5  cents  a  day.    The  practical  question  to  ask  is 
this :  Is  it  possible  to  substitute  some  other  feed  or 
feeds  for  the  more  expensive  oats  and  thus  reduce 
the  daily  cost?    It  is.    From  many  tests  made  many 


112 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


substitutes  may  be  chosen.  Corn,  wheat  bran,  oil 
meal,  cottonseed  meal,  brewers'  grains  and  many 
other  feeding  stuffs  can  be  substituted  for  oats. 
Suppose  we  use  9  pounds  of  corn  and  2  pounds  of 
oil  meal  in  place  of  14  pounds  of  oats.  The  nutrients 
of  the  two  will  be  as  follows : 

OATS  VERSUS  CORN  AND  OIL  MEAL 


Feed 

i                                i 
Digestible  nutrients 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

14  pounds  oats 

1.28 
1.29 

6.62 
6.64 

0.58 
0.52 

9   pounds  corn  and 
2  pounds  oil  meal   .  .    .  . 

From  the  standpoint  of  nutrients  these  two  are 
approximately  equal.  Let  us  compare  the  two  as 
to  cost  when  oats  are  worth  56  cents  a  bushel,  corn 
65  cents  a  bushel,  and  oil  meal  $30  a  ton.  In  both 
rations  10  pounds  of  hay  are  to  be  given,  and  hence 
the  cost  will  rest  with  the  kind  of  grain  provided. 
The  cost  of  the  two  grain  rations  will  be  as  follows : 
Corn  and  oil  meal  =  (9  X  (.65  -=-  56)  )  +  (2  X 

($30  -:-  2,000)  )  =  13.4  cents 
Oats  =  14  X  (-56  -T-  32)  =  24.5  cents 

Thus  at  prices  quoted,  but  substituting  9  pounds 
of  corn  and-  2  pounds  of  oil  meal  for  14  pounds  of 
oats,  the  same  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients  can  be 
obtained  and  at  a  daily  saving  of  n.i  cents  a  horse. 
If  six  horses  are  kept  and  are  fed  in  accordance  with 
this  saving  for  the  working  period  of  nine  months 
a  net  saving  of  $149.82  would  result. 


THE   COST  OF   THE   RATION  113 

Feeding  Stuffs  Vary  in  Price. — The  wise  feeder 
watches  the  market  prices  of  the  various  feeds.  To 
a  certain  extent  the  law  of  supply  and  demand  fixes 
the  prices  for  most  feeds.  When  the  corn  crop  is 
large  the  price  drops,  and  even  influences  the  value 
of  other  feeds,  although  there  may  be  a  short  crop 
of  each.  Yet  from  year  to  year  farm  grains,  hays, 
and  commercial  feed  crops  fluctuate  within  certain 
limits  from  month  to  month  and  from  year  to  year. 
By  taking  cognizance  of  this  fact  and  by  studying 
the  market  values  of  available  and  desirable  feed- 
ing stuffs  in  relation  to  their  digestible  ingredients, 
substitutions  can  be  made,  often  at  a  great  saving 
and  frequently  with  even  more  favorable  results 
than  through  the  use  of  the  more  familiar  feeds. 
See  that  the  combination  gives  a  balanced  ration, 
and  then  seek  good  feeds  that  will  continue  the  bal- 
ance, selecting  those  that  will  most  cheaply  do  it. 
In  this  way  a  handsome  profit  may  often  be  secured 
in  addition  to  greater  efficiency. 

Easy  to  Swap  Feeds. — Since  transportation  is 
now  so  easy,  an  exchange  of  one  class  for  another 
is  easily  made,  furnishing  no  reason  why  each  sec- 
tion should  not  have  such  nutrients  as  it  needs  to 
balance  properly  its  standard  feeding  rations.  The 
farmer  who  has  an  abundance  of  timothy  and  corn, 
which  he  is  now  feeding  his  farm  stock,  can  well 
afford  to  dispose  of  a  part  of  one  or  both  and  expend 
the  entire  receipts  for  some  good  substitute  of  equal 
or  greater  efficiency.  By  so  doing  he  need  not  in- 
crease his  outlay  at  all ;  but  he  will  supply  his  ani- 
mals with  a  more  satisfactory  ration. 


114  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

But  there  are  large  quantities  of  food  each  year 
going  to  waste  in  every  section.  Thousands  and 
thousands  of  tons  of  corn  stover,  cottonseed  meal, 
and  the  by-products  of  the  slaughtering  houses  rot 
each  year  in  American  farm  fields.  The  quantity 
of  this  rich  animal  food  and  real  wealth  is  so  vast 
as  to  be  almost  beyond  estimation.  Much  of  it  is 
wasted  and  unutilized  each  year.  Of  course,  these 


CONVERTING  CORN  INTO  Com 

materials  help  the  soil,  but  they  could  help  the  ani- 
mal first,  and  to  the  land  might  go  the  resulting 
manure,  doing  the  land  as  much  good  as  the  raw 
animal  food. 

Use  Judgment  in  Purchasing  Feeds. — Often  very 
poor  judgment  is  shown  in  the  purchase  of  feeds. 
Just  think  of  the  great  quantities  of  timothy  and 
other  hays  that  are  each  year  sent  into  some  sec- 
tion to  be  fed  to  live  stock!  It  is  not  wise  farm 


THE   COST   OF   THE   RATION  1 15 

management  to  buy  timothy  hay,  and  yet  this  prac- 
tice prevails  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  not 
economical  feeding.  There  is  no  special  virtue  in 
timothy  hay.  A  feeding  stuff  is  valuable  only  in  pro- 
portion to  its  ability  to  furnish  protein,  carbohy- 
drates and  fat.  Why  buy  timothy  hay  when  it  is 
little  better  than  corn  stover  as  a  feed  ?  Grow  plenty 
of  corn  and  the  legumes,  and  you  need  not  bother 
about  timothy  hay.  The  good  farmer  and  the  wise 
feeder  aims  to  have  some  legume  crop  at  all  times. 

Grow  the  Legumes. — Cowpeas  and  clovers  and 
alfalfa  are  needed,  not  only  to  catch  nitrogen  out  of 
the  air  and  store  it  in  the  soil  so  as  to  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  land,  and  add  humus  thereto,  but 
they  are  needed  as  feed  for  cattle  and  sheep  and  hogs 
and  horses.  Many  feeding  experiments  have  shown 
that  in  feeding  value,  either  of  these  three  feeds  is 
not  much  less  than  wheat  bran. 

Many  farmers  do  not  grow  wheat,  yet  they  buy 
wheat  bran  for  the  protein  it  contains,  because  they 
look  upon  wheat  bran  as  a  valuable  feeding  stuff. 
And  it  is ;  but,  in  addition  to  being  good,  it  is  also 
costly.  It  takes  money  from  the  pocket.  Still,  if  a 
man  could  sow  ten  acres  or  more  each  year  to  a  crop 
of  wheat  bran,  and  if  he  could  sow  the  wheat  bran 
just  as  he  can  now  sow  cowpeas  or  alfalfa  or  clover, 
and  if  he  could  get  two  tons  or  more  of  bran  an  acre, 
the  practice  would  become  general  throughout  the 
country.  And  why?  Because  every  farmer  has 
learned  of  the  value  of  wheat  bran  as  a  feed.  But  if 
alfalfa  and  cowpeas  and  clover  are  almost  as  good 
as  wheat  bran  for  all  feeding  purposes,  why  refrain 


Il6  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

from  growing  alfalfa,  cowpeas  and  clover  when  you 
can  get  from  three  to  six  tons  of  the  former  and  a 
ton  and  a  half  to  three  tons  an  acre  of  the  latter  two 
crops  from  the  land,  and  by  so  doing  get  feeding 
crops  that  actually  are  unexcelled? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
COST  OF  NUTRIENTS 

Bulk  Food  Should  Be  Home-Grown. — Little 
needs  to  be  said  about  the  importance  of  growing 
on  the  farm  all  the  bulk  food  required  for  live  stock. 
For  one  thing,  the  greater  part  of  the  feeding  stuffs 
can  be  grown  cheaper  than  they  can  be  bought  of 
someone  else.  Practically  all  materials  grown  on 
the  farm  and  used  for  feeding  purposes  are  low  in 
protein  but  correspondingly  high  in  other  nutrients. 
The  farmer  can  raise  all  the  carbohydrates  and  fat 
needed  for  either  the  dairy  or  the  block;  but,  un- 
fortunately, there  are  no  feeding  stuffs  made  up 
wholly  of  protein.  If  there  were,  the  balancing  of 
rations  in  reference  to  cost  would  be  a  very  simple 
process  indeed. 

Protein  Not  Solely  Purchased. — Though  protein 
is  the  constituent  most  needed  on  most  farms  when 
purchased,  other  nutrients  must  be  taken  along  with 
the  protein.  Carbohydrates  and  fat  are  present  in 
all  feeding  stuffs,  and  they  have  a  commercial  value. 
Consequently  when  we  buy  protein  we  get  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  also.  It  should  not  be  understood 
that  these  latter  constituents  are  a  trouble  or  a  nui- 
sance ;  they  have  a  value.  But  you  readily  see  it  is 
unfortunate  to  purchase  them  when  their  like  can 
be  secured  at  home.  It  suggests  the  same  idea  that 

117 


118 


COST    OF    NUTRIENTS  IIQ 

a  necktie  always  must  b<j  purchased  with  a  collar. 
One  may  never  wear  a  necktie,  or  he  may  have  all 
the  ties  he  needs  at  home,  yet  every  time  he  buys  a 
collar  he  is  obliged  to  pay  for  a  necktie  as  well.  If 
a  necktie  is  not  needed,  but  only  a  collar,  it  is  likely 
the  rule  would  be  to  get  the  collar  having  the  least 
necktie  about  it  and  the  value  of  the  purchase  depend 
wholly  upon  the  collar  and  nothing  on  the  necktie. 

If  the  farmer  raises  on  his  farm  all  he  needs  of  the 
carbohydrates  and  fat  which  have  a  low  commercial 
value,  he  cannot  afford  to  buy  more  of  the  same  con- 
stituents at  a  price  many  times  higher  than  he  can 
raise  them  himself.  Yet  the  feeder  is  obliged  to  do 
this  very  thing  when  he  purchases  protein.  It  can- 
not be  helped  and  it  is  no  one's  fault. 

There  is  a  point  of  practical  bearing,  however,  in 
this  matter.  If  you  have  to  take  carbohydrates  and 
fat  along  with  protein  and  pay  for  them,  get  as  lit- 
tle of  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  the  feeding  stuff 
as  possible  and  just  as  much  protein  as  you  can. 
The  aim  should  be  to  buy  the  feeding  stuff  having 
the  highest  quantity  of  digestible  protein  that  costs 
the  least  for  a  pound  of  protein. 

Expressed  in  a  few  words,  a  good  rule  to  follow 
is  this :  Grow  all  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  on  the 
farm;  never  be  placed  in  a  position  that  requires 
you  to  purchase  any.  Then  grow  the  protein  rough- 
ages, like  clover,  cowpeas  and  alfalfa,  and  little 
protein  will  need  to  be  bought.  This  is  economical 
and  practical  feeding.  It  is  good  farming. 

Purchase  of  Protein. — It  is  not  always  practical 
or  possible  under  ordinary  methods  of  farm  practice 


I2O  FEEDING  FARM   ANIMALS 

to  grow  all  the  protein  on  the  farm.  Hence  this 
nutrient  must  be  secured  elsewhere.  This  is  done 
either  through  purchase  of  grain  materials  not  raised 
on  the  farm,  or  the  purchase  of  by-products  from 
manufacturing  concerns.  Bran  comes  from  flour 
mills,  gluten  products  and  meal  from  the  manufac- 
turing of  starch,  and  cottonseed  meal  from  the  oil 
mills,  and  various  other  mill  products  from  other 
forms  of  manufacture.  There  is  a  long  list  of  con- 
centrates as  the  source  of  protein  consumption.  The 
feeder  is  interested  in  knowing  which  of  them  he 
shall  purchase.  Three  things  will  aid  him  in  the 
selection:  The  protein  content,  the  total  digestible 
nutrients,  and  the  market  price  of  the  feeding  stuff. 
A  wise  selection  requires  the  three  to  be  consid- 
ered together.  For  instance,  the  following  food- 
stuffs at  market  prices  are  available  to  a  feeder : 

Corn     65  cents  a  bushel 

Oats 56  cents  a  bushel 

Gluten  meal    $30  a  ton 

Cottonseed  meal   $32  a  ton 

Bran $30  a  ton 

Using  the  above  as  examples,  which  shall  be 
selected  if  the  feeder  simply  desires  to  get  protein 
for  the  purpose  of  balancing  a  ration,  having  as  its 
basic  constituents  feeding  stuffs  raised  on  the  farm? 
In  other  words,  if  the  feeder  is  abundantly  supplied 
with  roughage  materials  like  corn  stover,  silage, 
grass,  and  legume  hays,  what  concentrate  shall  he 
select  in  order  to  get  protein  to  balance  his  ration? 

The  sensible  thing  to  do  is  to  determine  which 
food  furnishes  a  pound  of  protein  at  least  cost.  We 
find  in  100  pounds  of  each  of  these  feeds  the  follow- 
ing quantities  of  protein  are  to  be  obtained : 


COST   OF   NUTRIENTS 


121 


PROTEIN  IN  CERTAIN  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Feeding  stuffs 

Pounds  of  digestible  protein 

In  100  pounds 

In  1  ton 

7.9 
9.2 
32.2 
37.2 
12.2 

158 

184 
644 
744 
244 

Oats                             

Bran                                  •          •  •  • 

A  ton  of  corn  contains  158  pounds  of  protein, 
which  is  worth  65  cents  a  bushel,  or  $25  a  ton.  One 
pound  of  protein  will  therefore  cost  2,500  divided  by 
158,  or  15.8-)-  cents  a  pound. 

In  like  manner  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  protein  in 
each  feeding  stuff  is  determined,  giving  us  the  fol- 
lowing: 


Feeding    stuffs 

Price  per 
ton 

Pounds  diges- 
tible protein 
per  ton 

Cost  per  pound 
protein  in 
cents 

Corn    

$25 

158 

15  8 

Oats     
Gluten  meal    .  .  . 
Cottonseed   meal 

35 

30 
32 

30 

184 
644 
744 

244 

18.9 
4.5 
4.3 
12  3 

Here  we  see  that  at  the  prices  assumed  cottonseed 
meal  and  gluten  meal  are  by  far  the  cheapest  sources 
of  protein. 

The  same  method  is  followed  in  determining  the 
protein  value  of  every  other  foodstuff.  So  simple  is 
it,  every  feeder  and  stockman  should  make  it  a  point 
to  determine  always  the  feeding  values  of  different 
feeding  stuffs  in  this  comparative  manner. 


122 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


On  Basis  of  Total  Digestible  Nutrients. — The 
comparative  cost  of  digestible  nutrients  is  deter- 
mined in  the  same  way  and  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  feeding  farm  animals.  If  it  is  necessary  to 
purchase  some  grain  or  concentrated  feeding  stuff, 
in  addition  to  a  comparison  of  the  protein,  let  the 
quantity  of  total  digestible  nutrients  be  taken  in 
consideration  also.  A  feeding  stuff  that  will  furnish 
not  only  the  protein,  but  the  total  digestible  nutri- 
ents, at  the  cheapest  cost  per  pound,  other  things 
being  satisfactory,  should  certainly  be  the  one  chosen. 

Using  the  same  feeds  as  before,  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing: 


Feeding   stuffs 

Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 

Total 
digestible 
nutrients 
In  one  ton 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Total 

Corn 

7.9 
9.2 
32.2 
37.2 
12.2 

66.7 
47.3 
43.3 
16.9 
39.2 

4.3 
4.2 
11.0 

12.2 

2.7 

78.9 
60.7 
80.1 
66.3 
54.'1 

1,578 
1,214 
1,730 
1,326 
1,082 

Oats    
Gluten   meal   .  . 
Cottonseed  meal 
Bran     

In  the  following  table  is  shown  the  price  a  pound 
of  digestible  nutrients  when  the  market  price  a  ton 
and  total  digestible  nutrients  are  given : 


Price  in  cents 

Total 

per  pound 

Feeding    stuffs 

Market 

digestible 

of  digestible 

price 

nutrients 

nutrients 

Corn    

$25 

1  578 

1.5 

Oats 

35 

1  214 

2  8 

Gluten  meal 

30 

1  730 

1  2 

Cottonseed  meal    .  .  . 

32 

1,326 

2.4 

Bran 

30 

1  080 

2  8 

COST   OF   NUTRIENTS  123 

Here  we  find  that  a  pound  of  digestible  nutrients 
is  most  costly  in  oats  and  wheat  bran ;  and  cheapest 
in  gluten,  corn,  and  cottonseed  meal. 

The  various  kinds  of  feeding  stuffs  can  be  de- 
termined in  this  manner  by  obtaining  the  market 
prices  and  dividing  these  prices  by  the  quantities 
of  total  digestible  nutrients  of  the  respective  feed- 
ing materials.  Taking  these  facts  in  consideration, 
with  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  protein  in  each,  and  then 
the  purposes  for  which  the  feed  is  given,  it  is  possi- 
ble to  make  a  more  intelligible  selection  than  on  the 
basis  of  cost  only.  If  dairy  cows  are  to  be  fed,  then 
clearly  gluten  or  cottonseed  meal  would  be  chosen, 
and  particularly  would  this  be  true  if  grass  hays, 
silage  and  corn  stover  were  at  hand  in  abundance. 

Using  Judgment  in  Getting  Protein. — In  purchas- 
ing protein  judgment  must  be  exercised  in  selecting 
the  carrier  of  it.  For  instance,  corn  is  cheaper  than 
bran  on  the  basis  of  total  digestible  nutrients,  but 
if  for  the  dairy,  bran  should  be  purchased  rather  than 
corn,  because  the  bran  contains  nearly  twice  the 
amount  of  protein.  Cottonseed  meal  contains  just 
about  five  times  the  quantity  of  digestible  protein 
that  corn  does.  If  the  two  could  be  purchased  at  the 
same  price  per  pound  of  digestible  nutrients,  cotton- 
seed meal  would  be  many  times  more  valuable  than 
corn,  because  of  the  very  much  larger  quantity  of 
protein. 

Roughage  Materials  should  be  as  carefully 
selected  as  the  concentrates.  It  is  often  advisable  to 
sell  one  kind  of  feeding  stuff  and  purchase  one  or 
more  kinds  in  exchange.  It  is  usually  economy  to 


124  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

sell  corn  and  oats  and  make  an  outright  purchase 
of  cottonseed  meal,  gluten  meal  and  bran,  if  dairy 
cows  are  to  be  fed.  Often  one  can  sell  roughage 
materials  to  good  advantage  and  secure  others  that 
contain  more  of  the  constituents  desired,  and  in  so 
doing  the  amount  of  concentrated  foods  can  be  cut 
down. 

If  the  feeder  uses  corn  stover  and  timothy  hay,  he 
will  necessarily  be  forced  to  balance  his  rations  with 
concentrated  materials.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he 
uses  cowpea  hay,  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  in  the  main 
for  roughage,  the  necessary  grain  material  will  be 
small.  In  many  markets  timothy  hay  is  sold  for  $20 
to  $30  a  ton  and  up,  while  cowpea  hay,  alfalfa  and 
clover  sell  for  $20  a  ton  and  under.  You  see  at  once 
that  the  legume  hays  are  the  most  economical,  for 
they  contain  several  times  more  digestible  protein 
than  timothy.  It  is  to  the  feeder's  advantage  to  dis- 
pose of  the  timothy,  often,  and  with  the  same  money 
purchase  the  legume  hays.  The  saving  in  corn  and 
bran  or  other  concentrates  will  be  clear  profit.  Of 
course,  the  desirable  way  is  to  grow  the  legumes  in 
abundance ;  then,  with  much  silage,  the  call  for  pur- 
chased grain,  or  concentrates,  will  be  of  little  con- 
sequence. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
FEEDING  YOUNG  ANIMALS 

Food  Requirements  of  the  Young. — Young  ani- 
mals require  food  that  will  form  tissue  and  bone 
rapidly.  Hence,  nitrogenous  and  mineral  substances 
must  be  supplied  abundantly;  and  from  sources  that 
appeal  to  the  taste  and  that  are  easily  digested.  In 
this  supply  milk  comes  first.  It  is  nature's  choice, 


THE  NEWLY  BORN  REQUIRE  COLOSTRUM 

When  an  offspring  is  born,  the  dam  for  a  period  of  a  few  days  secretes 
colostrum.     This  milk  acts  beneficially  on  the  digestive  tract. 

and  for  young  animals  is  the  most  desirable.  It 
contains  the  necessary  nutrients  in  a  properly  bal- 
anced form,  in  most  cases  is  liberally  provided  by 
the  mother,  and  in  all  respects  is  the  ideal  food  to 
start  the  offspring  on  its  way  to  maturity. 

125 


126 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


*Milk  contains  not  only  protein  and  ash,  but  fat, 
sugar  and  water  also.  But  the  protein  of  milk  is  in 
a  much  larger  proportion  to  the  fat  than  is  the  case 
with  other  food  that  meets  all  nutritive  requirements 
at  later  periods  of  growth.  And  at  the  time  of  birth 
this  is  particularly  the  case.  When  a  calf,  for  in- 
stance, has  just  been  born,  the  dam  for  a  period  of 
a  few  days  secretes  colostrum.  This  fluid,  or  first 
milk,  is  of  a  very  concentrated  description.  It  is 
yellow  or  yellowish  in  color,  is  of  a  viscid  nature, 
possesses  a  peculiar  smell  and  salty  taste.  As  it  is 
slightly  purgative,  it  acts  beneficially  on  the  diges- 
tive tract,  and,  if  the  young  is  to  be  started  forward 
favorably,  it  should  not  be  withheld. 

Colostrum. — Compared  with  ordinary  milk,  colos- 
trum is  rich  in  protein  and  the  mineral  substances, 
but  relatively  lower  in  milk  sugar  and  fat.  In  five 
days  to  a  week  after  birth  the  secretion  of  milk  in- 
creases, and  the  composition  gradually  changes  from 
colostrum  to  ordinary  milk.  The  composition  of 
cow's  milk  at  calving  and  at  a  later  period  shows  the 
higher  food  value  of  the  first  milk.  This  will  be 
observed  below : 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  OF  COW  S  MILK  IN    IOO  POUNDS 


Kind 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Colostrum    .  .  . 
Ordinary  milk 

25.4 
12.8 

17.6 
3.6 

2.7 
4.9 

3.6 
3.7 

1:0.6 
1:3.8 

FEEDING   YOUNG  ANIMALS 


127 


From  this  comparison  we  note  the  large  amount 
of  dry  matter  and  protein  in  the  first  milk  as  against 
ordinary  milk.  With  both  kinds  there  is  almost 
perfect  digestibility.  The  proportion  of  the  protein 
or  tissue  formers  to  the  fat  or  heat  producers  is 
much  higher  in  colostrum  than  in  ordinary  milk,  and 
in  each  more  than  in  most  vegetable  and  commer- 
cial foods.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  colostrum  is  in  the 
proportion  of  one  of  protein  to  six-tenths  of  fat  and 
sugar,  and  of  ordinary  milk  of  one  of  protein  to  3.7 
of  fat  and  sugar.  This  difference  indicates  the  rapid 
change  that  takes  place  in  the  milk  soon  after  the  birth 
of  the  offspring.  The  protein  diminishes,  while  both 
the  fat  and  the  sugar  increase. 

Ration  Should  Be  Changed  as  Age  Advances. — As 
young  animals  grow  older  and  consequently  enlarge 
in  size  they  call  for  increasing  amounts  of  the  heat 
and  fat-producing  elements.  This  is  illustrated  in 
the  table  below,  and  is  based  on  1,000  pounds  live 
weight: 

FOOD  REQUIREMENTS  OF  GROWING  CALVES 


Live  weight 
of  calf 

Dry 
matter 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Nutritive 
ratio 

150 

23 

4.0 

13.0 

2.0 

1:4.5 

300 

24 

3.0 

12.8 

1.0 

1:5.1 

500 

27 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

1:6.8 

700 

26 

1.8 

12.5 

0.4 

1:7.5 

900 

26 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

1:8.5 

This  table  shows  the  alterations  in  the  rations  of 
a  growing  calf  from  shortly  after  birth  up  to  a  period 
of  a  year  or  a  year  and  a  half.  As  the  calf  grows 


128 


FEEDING   YOUNG   ANIMALS  129 

older,  adding  age  and  weight,  the  nature  of  the  ra- 
tion changes  through  decreasing  demands  for  pro- 
tein and  in  increasing  demands  for  the  carbohy- 
drates. In  its  early  days  a  calf  takes  on  weight  very 
rapidly.  Compared  with  its  weight  the  amount  of 
food  consumed  is  very  large.  Often  a  small  calf 
will  gain  in  weight  as  fast  as  a  mature  steer  ten  times 
as  big.  Of  course  the  flesh  is  less  solid,  the  increase  is 
of  a  more  watery  nature,  and  the  food  consumption  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal  is  enormous. 

Nature  Widens  the  Ration. — During  the  baby- 
hood of  the  calf,  or  of  any  other  animal,  not  much 
exercise  is  taken ;  hence,  less  of  the  heat  and  energy 
materials  are  called  for;  but  as  this  condition 
changes,  there  arises  a  need  for  more  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats  to  provide  for  mechanical  work 
both  within  and  without  the  body.  As  these  are 
supplied  the  ration  takes  on  more  of  each  and  de- 
creases proportionately  the  protein. 

Nature  supplies  the  needed  carbohydrates  by 
creating  an  appetite  for  grass  and  roughage  mate- 
rials. Just  after  birth  a  calf,  partaking  of  colostrum, 
is  fed  abundantly  with  protein ;  in  a  few  days  this 
gives  way  to  ordinary  milk,  with  less  of  protein  and 
more  of  sugar  and  fat;  and  then  a  week  or  two  later 
the  call  of  nature  is  further  met  by  means  of  the 
nibbles  of  grass  or  grain  wherein  is  stored  still  larger 
quantities  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  to  meet  the 
cravings  occasioned  by  exercise,  energy  and  me- 
chanical work.  In  this  manner  every  offspring 
gradually  adjusts  its  food  to  its  needs  and  very 
largely  balances  its  own  ration. 


130 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


From  Whole  to  Skim  Milk. — It  is  not  uncommon 
to  give  whole  milk  to  a  young  calf  for  a  short  period 
after  being  removed  from  its  mother.  The  period, 
during  which  whole  milk  is  supplied  varies  more 
or  less,  depending  on  the  value  of  the  calf  or  the 
use  to  which  milk  on  the  particular  farm  is  put. 
Sooner  or  later,  however,  skim  milk  is  substituted 
for  the  whole  milk.  If  the  substitution  is  gradually 
made,  and  if  some  additional  food  is  provided,  no 
objection  to  the  change  will  arise.  But  too  fre- 
quently skim  milk  is  abruptly  substituted,  and  it 
only  is  fed.  This  is  bad  practice. 

Skim  milk  contains  little  if  any  fat;  consequently, 
the  young  animal  is  deprived  of  this  nutrient  and 
will  not  thrive  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Nor  will 
increasing  the  quantity  of  skim  milk  help.  Death 
will  ultimately  follow  if  the  skim  milk  ration  is  con- 
tinuously fed  and  not  balanced  by  means  of  some 
substitution  for  the  fat  removed  from  the  milk.  Be- 
low are  shown  the  digestible  nutrients  in  whole  and 
skim  milk : 

WHOLE  AND  SKIM   MILK   COMPARED 


Kind 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Whole    milk    .  .  . 
Skim  milk    

12.8 
9.6 

3.6 
3.1 

4.9 
4.7 

3.8 
0.2 

When  the  fat  is  removed  by  skimming  and  the 
remaining  liquid  fed  exclusively,  the  calf  or  the  pig 
develops  slowly,  shows  dissatisfaction  with  the  food, 


FEEDING   YOUNG   ANIMALS 


and  is  less  thrifty  generally.  This  condition  is  over- 
come by  supplying  shelled  corn  or  oil  meal  in  addi- 
tion to  the  skim  milk.  Not  only  will  a  more  rapid 
growth  soon  be  apparent,  but  gains  will  result  more 
economically. 

Little    Trouble    with    Suckling    Animals. — With 
colts,  pigs  and  lambs  during  their  suckling  age  there 


GATHERING  UP  WHAT  THE  STEERS  DROP 

If  pigs  are  permitted  to  follow  cattle  and  horses  much  waste  food  will  be 
utilized.  Often  no  additional  food  is  required  than  what  the  pigs  themselves 
gather  in  the  feed  lots. 

is  usually  no  problem  at  all.  If  the  mothers  are 
properly  supplied  with  food  the  regular  course  will 
be  taken  and  each  will  adjust  its  ration  to  its  own 
individual  needs,  provided  grass  or  grain  is  available. 
This  is  likely  to  be  the  case  as  the  offspring  feeds  with 
its  dam.  It  will  soon  learn  to  eat  at  its  mother's  side. 


132  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Calves,  on  the  other  hand,  present  a  different 
case.  Their  original  food  has  a  great  commercial 
value ;  and  whole  milk  for  the  market  or  for  butter 
is  too  valuable  to  be  used  as  a  feed  for  average 
calves.  Consequently,  milk  is  not  set  before  them 
until  after  the  butter  fat  has  been  removed. 

A  practical  way  is  to  feed  the  new  born  calf  whole 
milk  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  then  gradually  change 
from  whole  milk  to  skim  milk.  During,  or  follow- 
ing this  change,  the  young  calf  will  begin  to  eat 
corn  and  oil  meal,  and  never  will  notice  the  sub- 
stitution either  in  temper  or  development.  With  oil 
meal  worth  a  cent  and  a  half  a  pound,  and  butter 
fat  worth  25  or  30  cents  a  pound,  it  is  apparent  that 
it  is  a  heavy  loss  to  feed  butter  fat  when  oil  meal  is 
as  wholesome  and  nutritious. 

Calf  Feeds. — Many  especially  prepared  calf  feeds 
are  on  the  market  as  substitutes  for  milk  or  for  but- 
ter fat.  Many  of  these  are  excellent  and  perfectly 
satisfactory.  Their  one  objection  is  their  cost.  A 
ton  of  prepared  calf  food  may  cost  $50  to  $100,  but 
practically  all  of  the  substances  were  obtainable  at 
$20  to  $35  a  ton.  When  linseed  oil  meal,  boiled  flax 
seed,  corn  and  pea  meal,  etc.,  are  available,  it  is 
possible  for  every  farmer  to  secure  his  own  supply 
and  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  the  butter 
fat  that  he  removes  from  his  milk. 

Feeding  the  Dairy  Calf. — Opinions  vary  as  to 
whether  it  is  best  to  remove  the  calf  from  its  mother 
at  once  or  to  wait  until  some  days  after  birth.  It  is 
becoming  more  and  more  a  custom  to  remove  the 
calf  early,  within  two  or  three  days  at  the  most. 


FEEDING   YOUNG   ANIMALS 


133 


The  calf  is  allowed  to  nurse  at  its  mother's  side  at 
first.  It  is  then  removed  to  a  box  stall  or  an  open 
lot  away  from  its  dam,  and  allowed  to  get  hungry. 
Then,  with  three  or  four  pints  of  its  mother's  milk, 
it  is  taught  to  drink.  This  teaching  may  run 
through  a  period  of  two  or  three  trials.  Two  or 
three  feeds  a  day  should  be  given,  three  being  bet- 
ter than  two.  If  the  calf  is  not  very  strong,  four 
feeds  are  desirable. 


READY  FOR  THEIR  BREAKFAST 

This  simple  contrivance  is  much   esteemed  where  many  calves   are   fed  and 
raised.     Each  gets  its  own  ration  without  fuss,  confusion  or  fight. 

The  milk  used  should  be  from  the  mother  and  not 
from  another  cow,  because  it  is  the  colostrum  that 
is  desired;  and  this  milk  should  be  fed  while  warm 
from  the  cow.  This  should  be  kept  up  until  the  calf 
has  a  good  start  and  is  drinking  well.  Some  dairy- 
men begin  to  change  from  whole  to  partly  whole 
and  skim  milk  in  a  week  or  ten  days,  while  others 


134  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

continue  the  whole  milk  for  a  period  covering  two 
or  three  weeks.  Some  time  between  ten  days  and 
three  weeks  skim  milk  may  be  substituted  for  a 
part  of  the  whole  milk.  To  the  allotment  of  whole 
milk  add  about  one-fourth  more  of  skim  milk  and 
keep  increasing  the  skim  milk  for  a  week  or  ten 
days,  until  the  whole  milk  has  been  entirely  dis- 
placed by  skim  milk.  When  the  skim  milk  has  been 
started,  a  teaspoonful  of  linseed  oil  meal  may  be 
mixed  with  a  half  cup  of  warm  water,  then  added 
to  the  milk,  which  is,  of  course,  partially  skim  milk. 
The  calf  at  this  time  will  be  taking  two  quarts  three 
times  a  day. 

It  is  worth  while  to  be  careful  not  to  overfeed. 
Overfeeding  on  skim  milk  always  stunts  a  calf. 
During  this  early  feeding  period  not  more  than 
three  quarts  should  be  fed  at  a  time  and  three  feeds 
a  day  should  be  given. 

The  oil  meal  is  to  be  gradually  increased  until, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  months,  a  half  pint  is  fed 
daily.  Some  dairymen  get  excellent  results  by  using 
a  flaxseed  jelly  in  the  skim  milk.  To  make  this  jelly, 
soak  whole  flaxseed  in  hot  water.  Many  calf  rais- 
ers think  this  food  far  superior  for  young  calves  to 
any  calf  meal  used  as  a  substitute  for  milk.  The  best 
substitute  for  the  flaxseed  is  linseed  oil  meal. 

When  the  calf  is  two  or  three  weeks  old  a  little 
whole  corn  and  oats  in  the  box  where  the  calves  can 
get  at  it  will  be  eaten  and  relished.  The  calf  will 
soon  take  to  hay.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  the 
calf  growing  steadily  and  in  a  thrifty  condition. 
Spring  calves  can  soon  be  turned  in  a  pasture  lot.  If 


FEEDING   YOUNG   ANIMALS 


135 


fed  the  skim  milk  and  the  cream  substitutes,  they 
should  show  steady  growth  and  plenty  of  thrift. 

After  such  calves  have  reached  the  age  of  four 
to  six  months,  the  skim  milk  may  be  dropped  out  of 
the  ration,  but  the  grain  concentrates  like  oil  meal, 
corn  and  oats,  should  be  continued,  even  increased 
slightly,  and  fed  in  con- 
junction with  pasture 
grass  or  the  legume 
hays.  During  the  first 
winter  let  these  hays 
be  abundantly  fed,  so 
as  to  develop  large 
stomachs,  and  to  fur- 
nish plenty  of  protein 
and  the  ash  materials. 

Feeding  the  Beef 
Calf. — In  some  sections 
of  the  country  calves 
are  either  vealed  or 
saved  for  beef,  and  yet 
the  cows  are  managed 
so  as  to  get  the  most 
milk  possible  either  for 
sale  or  for  butter.  Best 
results  are  obtained  when  veal  calves  are  given  all 
of  the  whole  milk  they  will  use.  Many  allow  the 
calf  to  stay  with  its  mother  during  a  period  of  three 
or  four  weeks,  taking  all  of  the  milk  that  the  mother 
gives.  In  addition,  some  grain  is  allowed,  consisting 
of  oil  meal  or  flaxseed  and  corn.  When  disposed  of 
as  veal  calves,  the  mother  is  put  in  the  herd  and 


BEEF  IN  THE  MAKING 

The  new  idea  in  beef  production 
is  to  grow  beef  and  not  to  fatten 
cattle. 


136  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

milked  thereafter.  This  practice  is  permissible  with 
cows  of  a  poor  grade.  It  is  injurious  in  high  milk 
production,  and  inevitably  leads  to  the  destruction 
of  the  herd,  because  many  of  the  good  dairy  calves 
are  vealed  and  forever  lost  as  dairy  prospects.  If 
calves  are  allowed  to  suck  their  dams  for  as  long  a 
period  as  required  for  making  good  veal,  the  value 
of  the  cow  as  a  milk  producer  is  somewhat  lessened. 


BRED  FOR  BEEF 

Th  s  pure-bred  Shorthorn  calf  was  left  with  its  mother  for  a  week.  After 
that  time  it  was  fed  whole  milk,  then  whole  and  skim  milk  mixed,  then 
skim  milk  and  oil  meal. 

Objection  to  the  practice  of  first  milking  the  cows 
and  giving  the  whole  milk  to  the  veal  calves  is  raised 
because  of  the  labor  expense.  Some  farmers  meet 
this  by  removing  some  of  the  butter  fat  and  provid- 
ing substitutes  as  previously  described  for  the  cream 
removed.  Where  calves  intended  for  beef  stock  are 
removed  from  their  mothers  cream  substitutes  can 


FEEDING   YOUNG   ANIMALS  137 

be  given  in  addition  to  skim  milk,  as  described  for 
dairy  calves.  They  should  be  fed  so  as  to  obtain 
quick  development.  Larger  quantities  of  concen- 
trated grains  are  admissible  in  proportion  to  the 
roughage  materials  than  where  whole  milk  is  fed; 
yet  the  aim  is  not  to  fatten  this  young  stock,  but  to 
grow  beef.  This  means  gradually  to  widen  the 
ration,  basing  it  on  good  grass,  skim  milk,  oil  meal, 
and  corn,  and  later,  on  silage,  if  available,  and  a  rea- 
sonable amount  of  hay,  the  legume  kind  preferred. 

Where  beef  is  raised  exclusively,  particularly  on 
the  western  ranges  and  in  beef  herds  produced  from 
beef  breeding  stock,  calves  are  allowed  to  suckle 
their  mothers  until  naturally  weaned.  If  allowed 
the  run  of  the  pasture  with  the  mother,  little,  if  any, 
food  is  given  in  addition  to  what  is  obtained  by 
suckling  the  dam  and  by  grazing.  These  beef  dams 
are  not  heavy  milkers  as  a  rule ;  consequently,  the 
food  supply  from  the  milk  is  much  smaller  than  if 
the  same  practice  were  followed  in  the  dairy  herd. 
As  weaning  time  approaches  either  an  abundance  of 
succulent  grass  should  be  available,  or  else  substi- 
tutes should  be  provided  in  the  way  of  concentrates 
and  hay.  During  their  first  winter  beef  calves  raised 
in  this  manner,  either  while  on  or  off  the  cows, 
should  be  given  grain,  silage  if  available,  and  good 
bright  hay.  The  quantity  of  each  will  vary  with 
individuals.  The  aim  should  be  to  provide  the  pro- 
tein liberally.  If  good  hay  and  silage  are  available 
the  proper  balance  of  food  material  will  follow. 

The  Feeding  of  Lambs. — At  birth  the  main  thing 
is  to  see  that  the  lamb  gets  its  mother's  milk.  The 


FEEDING   YOUNG    ANIMALS  139 

ewe's  udder  should  be  examined  to  see  that  it  is  in 
a  healthy  condition.  If  the  ewe  is  receiving  the 
proper  kind  of  food  and  her  udder  is  doing  its  work, 
no  further  attention  is  necessary.  From  the  time 
the  lambs  are  dropped  until  taken  from  the  flock 
they  are  dependent  on  the  mother  ewe  both  for  milk 
and  for  companionship.  If  the  lambs  are  taken  from 
the  ewe  and  compelled  to  suffer  from  hunger  and 
lonesomeness,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  bewail  their 
condition  and  shrink  in  flesh.  The  good  flock- 
master  avoids  this,  because  it  is  inhumane  and  al- 
ways acts  as  a  physical  shock  that  requires  some 
time  for  recovery. 

The  mother  ewes  should  be  given  some  grain 
food,  in  addition  to  pasture  or  other  roughage,  dur- 
ing the  period  the  lambs  are  with  them.  If  the  lambs 
are  thrifty,  they  will  soon  learn  to  eat  of  the  same 
kind  of  food.  Such  lambs,  being  thrifty,  are  always 
good  eaters  and  make  but  little  fuss  when  removed 
at  weaning  time.  It  is  good  practice  to  prepare  for 
weaning.  Prior  to  weaning,  teach  the  lambs  to  eat 
some  food  that  will  take  the  place  of  the  mother's 
milk  better  than  the  grass  of  the  pasture.  Get  the 
flock  into  an  inclosure  where  they  will  be  com- 
fortable after  having  fed  on  grass  in  the  morning, 
and  give  them  a  light  feed  of  some  mixture  of  con- 
centrates like  oats  and  bran,  half  and  half,  or  oats 
and  bran  with  some  oil  meal  added.  The  ewes  will 
enjoy  a  light  feed  of  this  morning  and  night,  and  the 
lambs  will  learn  to  eat  with  them.  When  the  lambs 
have  learned  to  eat  these  concentrates  in  the  in- 
closure, the  ewes  may  be  separated  from  the  lambs. 


I4O  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

When  the  day  of  separation  has  arrived,  get  the  flock 
in  the  inclosure  earlier  than  ordinary,  feed,  and  then 
hold  until  nearly  time  to  turn  out.  Now  sort  the 
ewes,  then  feed  the  lambs,  and  take  the  ewes  to  some 
distant  field  out  of  hearing  of  the  lambs.  After  the 
lambs  have  had  a  good  feed  of  grain  turn  them  back 


LARGE  LITTER  OF  VIGOROUS  PIGS 

Creeps  for  young  pigs  in  which  they  may  go  for  slop  food  are  desirable. 
Both  mother  and  pigs  benefit. 


to  their  old  pasture  ground,  and  they  will  go  to 
picking  up  grass  at  once.  The  lambs  should  be 
taken  up  each  day,  fed  a  fairly  liberal  portion  of 
grain,  be  given  access  to  all  the  water  needed  and 
plenty  of  grass,  and  they  will  make  good  growth 
without  further  bother. 


FEEDING   YOUNG   ANIMALS  14! 

The  Feeding  of  Pigs. — The  sow  while  nursing  re- 
quires liberal  feeding,  as  the  rearing  of  a  large  litter 
is  a  severe  drain  on  her  system.  Skim  milk,  butter 
milk,  bran,  shorts,  ground  oats,  wheat  and  barley, 
with  a  run  on  pasture  grass,  will  meet  the  situation. 
No  care  or  attention  will  be  needed  to  get  the  little 
pigs  to  drink  when  two  or  three  weeks  old.  A  good 
method  is  to  provide  a  shallow,  flat-bottom  trough 
in  a  small  inclosure  in  one  corner  of  the  lot  where 
the  sow  is  fed,  allowing  the  young  pigs  access  to  this 
at  will,  but  where  the  sow  cannot  reach  it.  For  the 
first  day  or  two  a  little  fresh  milk  can  be  used ;  after- 
wards give  sweet  skim  milk,  properly  warmed.  If 
skim  milk  is  not  available,  then  middlings  or  shorts 
mixed  in  a  thin  slop  are  a  good  substitute.  This  can 
be  fed  twice  daily. 

The  pigs  should  not  be  weaned  abruptly,  because 
of  the  injury  that  would  result  to  the  sow.  There  is 
a  large  flow  of  milk,  which  should  be  dried  up  grad- 
ually. It  is  not  a  good  plan,  either,  to  remove  some 
of  the  pigs,  allowing  the  remaining  ones  to  stay 
with  the  mother  a  few  days  or  a  week  or  so.  This 
is  admissible,  however,  if  part  of  the  litter  has 
profited  at  the  expense  of  other  members.  In  case 
this  is  so,  the  larger  ones  can  be  removed  after  they 
have  become  satisfied  with  their  slop  ration,  and  the 
less  thrifty  ones  kept  back  to  dry  ofr*  the  sow. 
Weaning  should  be  done  gradually;  then  there  will 
be  no  sudden  check  either  to  the  pigs  or  the  mother. 
If  the  sow  is  fed  a  spare  diet  consisting  of  a  little 
dry  grain  or  given  the  run  of  an  old  pasture,  the 


142  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

secretion  of  milk  will  be  arrested  and  both  sow  and 
pigs  will  adjust  themselves  to  the  new  order. 

When  the  young  pigs  have  learned  freely  to  take 
slop  made  of  shorts  or  middlings  and  skim  milk, 
they  are  ready  for  weaning.  This  usually  takes 
place  at  seven  to  ten  weeks  of  age.  If  skim  milk 
is  not  available,  then  the  longer  the  pigs  remain  on 


RESTING  IN  THE  PASTURE  FIELD 

The  brood  mare  may  be  worked  practically  up  to  foaling  time.  After 
foaling  for  10  days  or  two  weeks  she  is  entitled  to  ease  and  rest.  In  sum- 
mer the  pasture  or  paddock  is  the  best  place  for  her  and  plenty  of  fresh 
water  and  grain  should  be  supplied. 

the  dam  the  better.  In  no  case  should  they  be 
weaned  until  they  take  food  freely  apart  from  their 
mother.  After  being  weaned,  give  them  access  to  a 
good  pasture  and  a  grain  slop  of  middlings,  short.'? 
or  corn  meal  twice  daily.  The  amount  of  meal  fe^l 
will  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  pasture. 


FEEDING    YOUNG   ANIMALS 


143 


Young  clover,  or  a  mixture  of  young  timothy  and 
clover  or  alfalfa,  will  meet  the  requirements  excel- 
lently. The  custom  of  preparing  grazing  lots  of 
cowpeas,  rape,  peanuts,  sweet  potatoes  or  rye  is 
growing,  and  where  this  method  is  followed  the  cost 
of  producing  pork  is  materially  lessened.  At  wean- 


AN  INEXPENSIVE  COLT  CREEP 

Young  colts,  on  pasture  with   their  mothers,  may  be  given  grain  by  means 
of   some    contrivance    as    this. 

ing  time  the  ration  must  contain  a  liberal  amount 
of  protein,  but  as  age  advances  this  will  decrease 
proportionately,  and  the  pigs,  if  admitted  to  good 
pasture,  will  grow  rapidly  and  thrive  as  they  should. 
Feeding  the  Foal. — Until  the  foal  is  a  month  old 
it  ought  not  to  get  wet  nor  have  a  damp  bed.  Dur- 
ing this  time  it  will  obtain  its  food  largely  from  its 


144  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

mother  as  milk.  For  a  week  or  ten  days  after  birth 
the  mother  should  be  given  rest  in  the  pasture  field, 
after  which  she  can  be  started  in  again  on  light 
work.  Ordinarily,  it  is  best  to  train  the  foal  to  re- 
main in  its  stall  while  the  mother  is  at  work.  When 
the  mare  is  started  in  at  work  again,  the  foal  should 
be  allowed  for  a  while  to  have  its  mother's  milk  at 
least  once  in  the  forenoon  and  once  in  the  afternoon, 
and  to  remain  at  its  mother's  side  during  the  noon 
hour,  and  from  quitting  time  in  the  evening  until  the 
mare  is  put  to  work  in  the  morning. 

If  allowed  to  stand  at  its  mother's  side,  the  foal 
will  soon  eat  of  grain  in  the  manger,  and  in  this 
way  learn  to  eat  both  grain  and  hay,  in  addition  to 
grass  in  the  pasture  field.  By  weaning  time  the  foal 
should  know  how  to  eat  what  it  subsequently  will  be 
given.  Corn,  oats,  bran,  and  oil  meal  make  an  ex- 
cellent mixture  and  can  be  given  in  equal  parts, 
though  at  first  only  in  small  amounts.  Grass  is  an 
ideal  food  when  supplemented  with  oats  or  with  the 
combination  just  mentioned.  The  weaning  should 
be  done  gradually;  then  neither  foal  nor  the  dam 
will  suffer.  After  weaning,  increase  the  grain  and 
provide  good  bright  hay  for  roughage.  Handled  in 
this  manner,  the  foal  will  go  through  the  winter 
nicely  and  when  turned  out  to  pasture  in  the  spring 
will  show  thrift  and  make  rapid  growth. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  FEEDING  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS 

The  excessive  feeding  of  breeding  stock  is  harm- 
ful ;  indeed,  more  so  than  when  animals  are  under- 
fed. This  is  especially  true  when  the  feeding  ration 
contains  an  overabundance  of  carbonaceous  foods. 
When  such  are  supplied  to  mature  breeding  stock, 


Too  FAT  FOR  GOOD  BREEDERS 

Breeding  stock  should   be  thrifty,  but  not  excessively   fat.     Otherwise  their 
breeding  qualities  will  sooner  or  later  be  impaired. 

the  animals  often  become  very  fat,  and  are  not  as 
prolific  as  they  otherwise  might  be.  The  adult  ani- 
mal, if  properly  nourished,  neither  gains  nor  loses 
in  weight.  It  requires  food  for  the  repair  of  tissues, 
to  maintain  its  regular  supply  of  hair,  wool  and 

145 


146  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

horn,  and  to  produce  heat  and  mechanical  work  by 
combustion  of  the  food  in  the  body. 

In  addition,  breeding  animals  must  have  food 
enough  to  provide  for  the  growth  of  the  fetal  young. 
This  means  blood  and  tissue  for  every  part  of  the 
offspring.  Carbohydrates  and  fat  cannot  assist  in 
providing  this  material.  It  must  come  solely  from 
the  protein  of  the  food.  Consequently,  every  preg- 
nant animal  should  be  given  considerable  protein 
in  her  ration,  both  for  her  own  use  and  for  the  devel- 
oping progeny. 

Feeding  the  Dairy  Cow  When  Carrying  Calf. — 
After  calving,  and  then  for  a  period  of  several 
months,  the  good  dairy  cow  drops  off  in  flesh,  even 
though  liberally  supplied  with  food.  She  should 
never  be  fat  as  that  condition  is  known  in  respect 
to  the  beef  cow.  After  she  has  caught  her  gait  in 
milk  production,  her  weight  is  maintained  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  and  if  the  food  supply  is  still  lib- 
eral, she  will  gain  in  weight  and  flesh.  Ordinarily, 
the  rations  of  the  dairy  stable  are  satisfactory  both 
for  milk  production  and  for  the  support  of  the  fetal 
calf. 

Heavy  concentrated  grains  may  be  injurious, 
hence  caution  will  not  be  out  of  place  if  taken  at  the 
time  the  cow  approaches  parturition.  During  the 
latter  part  of  her  lactation  period  concentrated  feeds 
like  cottonseed  meal  or  gluten  meal  should  be  les- 
sened or  discontinued  altogether  and  food  like  wheat 
bran  or  some  of  the  laxative  commercial  feeds  given 
instead.  Some  grain  will  be  necessary  at  this  period 
in  order  to  maintain  the  milk  flow,  even  though  it 


THE   FEEDING  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS  147 

has  become  lessened  naturally  in  quantity.  This 
grain  should  be  of  a  nature  that  will  tend  to  make 
milk  and  that  will  at  the  same  time  act  as  a  good 
carrier  of  mineral  substances.  Thus  not  only  the 
cow  but  also  the  developing  offspring  will  benefit. 

Just  before  parturition  laxative  foods  are  to  be 
preferred.  Of  course,  nothing  is  better  than  good 
pasture  grass,  and  if  cows  have  the  run  of  a  pasture 
field  from  spring  to  winter  little  trouble  will  be 
met  with  at  calving  time.  If,  however,  the  calves 
are  dropped  during  the  winter  when  pastures  are 
no  longer  available,  the  next  best  thing  is  silage  for 
succulence,  and  if  silage  is  not  available,  then  mo- 
lasses, molasses  feeds,  or  the  beet  pulps  and  roots.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  cows  either  in  milk  or  carrying  offspring 
should  be  liberally  supplied  with  the  legume  hays 
like  clover,  alfalfa  or  cowpea,  so  as  not  only  to  pro- 
vide an  abundance  of  protein  but  of  ash  material  as 
well. 

While  it  is  not  desired  that  the  dairy  cow  be  fat, 
still  she  should  carry  a  reasonable  amount  of  flesh. 
The  production  of  fat  cells  in  the  body  is,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  at  least,  at  the  expense  of  milk  cells; 
therefore  the  dairy  cow  with  beef  tendencies  is  usu- 
ally not  a  profitable  milk  producer.  Since  milk  is 
not  an  object  of  great  importance  with  the  beef 
animals,  bloom,  quality  and  flesh  are  desired  in  this 
class  of  stock.  To  be  profitable  the  dairy  cow  should 
be  in  milk  ten  or  eleven  months  each  year.  The 
cow  that  goes  dry  after  five  or  six  months  of  milk- 
ing would  be  more  profitable  for  the  farmer  in  the 
fattening  lot  than  in  the  dairy  herd.  Two  or  three 


148  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

months  prior  to  calving,  the  dairy  cow  or  the  beef 
cow  should  receive  daily  a  pound  or  two  of  wheat 
bran,  four  or  five  pounds  of  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cow- 
pea  hay,  for  needed  protein  and  the  ash  constituents. 
This  is  particularly  needed  during  the  winter  and 
during  the  summer  or  the  fall  when  the  pasture 
grass  is  short  or  withered. 

At  Calving  Time  the  cow  should  be  put  off  by 
herself.  Bran,  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay,  to- 
gether with  silage  or  some  other  succulent  food, 
should  compose  the  daily  ration.  After  calving,  cut 
out  the  ration  entirely  for  a  day  or  so ;  feed  only  a 
little  bran  and  succulent  food.  The  quantity  of  food 
may  be  increased  from  the  second  day  gradually  un- 
til the  cow  is  placed  on  her  full  ration.  It  is  not  well 
to  be  in  too  big  a  hurry  to  get  the  cow  on  a  full  ra- 
tion or  to  bring  her  up  to  the  full  capacity  as  a  milk 
producer.  It  is  often  a  wise  practice  to  use  a  full 
month  to  get  the  cow  on  full  feed  and  to  her  pro- 
duction capacity. 

The  beef  cow  usually  is  given  the  range  of  the 
field  in  which  she  may  drop  her  calf.  She  is  placed 
under  conditions  more  natural  to  her,  and  hence, 
usually,  will  take  care  of  herself  and  her  offspring. 
If  pasture  is  abundant,  supplementary  feeds  will  not 
be  required ;  but  if  she  is  an  important  breeding 
cow  herself,  in  high  breeding  form  and  flesh,  and  if, 
because  of  her  breeding,  it  is  desired  to  secure  the 
quickest  and  fullest  development  of  the  calf,  addi- 
tional food  in  form  of  concentrates  may  be  given  to 
advantage.  If  the  herbage  is  scant  or  otherwise  in- 
sufficient or  improper,  a  grain  ration  should  be  pro- 


THE   FEEDING   OF   BREEDING  ANIMALS  149 

vided.  In  either  case  the  ordinary  commercial  feeds 
like  cottonseed  meal,  the  glutens,  wheat  bran,  oil 
meal  or  corn  may  be  furnished  singly  or  in  com- 
binations, depending  on  the  cost  or  the  ease  of  ob- 
taining them. 

The  Brood  Sow. — Corn  has  been  'connected  for  so 
long  a  time  with  hog  feeding  that  it  still  holds  a  high 
place  as  a  food  for  the  brood  sow.  To  a  certain  ex- 
tent this  practice  is  wrong,  but  though  many  lead- 


FEEDING  Box  FOR  ALFALFA  HAY 

Hogs  relish  alfalfa  during  all  seasons  of  the  year.  In  winter  dry  hay 
may  be  placed  in  a  box  as  here  shown  and  much  less  wil!  be  wasted  than 
when  thrown  on  the  ground  or  placed  in  racks. 

ing  hog  men  caution  against  the  heavy  use  of  corn, 
they  nevertheless  do  resort  to  it  more  or  less.  This 
is  partly  because  in  the  important  hog  sections  corn 
is  always  available  and  usually  abundant  as  a  hog 
food,  and  because  it  is  home  raised  and  seldom  re- 
fused or  rejected. 

Food  of  a  more  protein  nature  should  be  fed  the 
sow  previous  to  the  time  of  dropping  her  pigs  and 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


while  she  is  suckling  them.  This  does  not  mean 
that  corn  should  be  cut  out  of  the  ration  altogether. 
In  sections  where  corn  is  not  freely  produced,  and 
where  its  commercial  value  is  high,  substitutes  are 
more  generally  provided  and  the  objections  to  its 
use  are  not  usually  met. 


A  PORTABLE  HOG  HOUSE 

Here  is  shown  a  hog  house  that  can  be  moved  to  various  parts  of  the 
field,  insuring  cleanly  quarters  and  new  feeding  grounds.  Both  are  items 
of  great  importance  in  hog  raising. 

The  food  of  the  brood  sow  should  be  similar  to 
that  given  the  dairy  cow,  particularly  the  grain  part 
of  the  ration.  Even  silage  is  good,  as  are  also  alfalfa 
and  clover  hay.  To  those  unaccustomed  to  the  use  of 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay  it  may  seem  impossible  that  the 
brood  sow  would  use  either  to  any  great  extent. 
Nevertheless,  the  consumption  of  such  is  practically 
as  great  as  when  either  is  fed  to  horses  or  cows. 


THE   FEEDING  OF   BREEDING  ANIMALS  15! 

Bran  slop  makes  a  very  desirable  food,  as  do  also 
middlings  and  shorts,  and  should  be  fed  both  before 
and  after  the  pigs  have  been  dropped. 

At  Pigging  Time,  the  sow  should  not  be  disturbed 
and  her  ration  should  be  diminished  for  a  day  or  two. 
A  thin  slop  or  clear  water  should  be  set  in  her  pen 
and  nothing  done  to  excite  or  disturb  the  sow  in  any 
way.  Brood  sows  should  be  accustomed  to  handling 


MAKING  PORK  FROM  RAPE 

This   forage   crop   is   gradually   extending   its   boundaries,   and,  while   useful 
for  all  stock,  is  especially  prized  as  a  green  pasture  for  hogs. 

and  at  pigging  time  should  admit  the  owner  or  an 
attendant  to  give  quiet  assistance  when  necessary. 
If  the  weather  is  cold  some  provision  for  heating 
may  be  advisable,  or  the  newly  born  pigs  may  be 
removed  to  a  basket  after  having  been  carefully 
wiped  and  dried,  and  after  having  fed  on  the  milk 
that  by  this  time  has  been  secreted.  It  is  important 
that  the  pigs  get  the  first  milk  soon  after  birth. 
Otherwise  their  strength  soon  declines. 


152  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

In  a  day  or  two  the  food  supply  should  be  in- 
creased. It  should  consist  of  milk-stimulating  and 
milk-producing  foods  like  middlings,  shorts,  gluten, 
linseed  oil  meal,  pea  meal,  .skim  milk,  etc.  A  little  corn 
or  corn  meal  may  be  given,  but  this  should  be  limited. 

Exercise  for  Brood  Sows.— See  that  the  brood 
sows  take  exercise  and  that  they  get  succulent  food. 
It  is  doubtful  if  any  other  factor  in  hog  raising  has 
brought  about  quite  as  much  injury  as  the  practice 
of  placing  brood  sows  in  little  pens,  preventing  them 
from  getting  juicy  roots  or  green  foods  and  cutting 
off  their  opportunity  for  exercise  entirely.  The  run 
of  the  pasture  field,  or  in  the  winter  of  rye  or  wheat 
lots,  or  in  fall  of  harvesting  peanuts,  artichokes, 
cowpeas,  or  of  cleaning  up  old  meadows,  all  add 
vigor  to  the  sows,  largely  wipe  out  the  cost  of  keep, 
and  increase  the  vitality  of  the  coming  offspring. 
The  best  mother  is  one  that  supplies  a  heavy  flow  of 
milk.  To  do  this  she  must  be  healthy,  strong,  and 
be  liberally  supplied  with  food.  From  well  fed 
brood  sows,  therefore,  usually  come  the  healthiest 
and  quickest  maturing  offspring. 

The  Brood  Mare. — There  is  no  objection  to  work- 
ing the  brood  mare  or  of  exercising  her  right  up  to 
foaling  time.  Liberal  feeding  on  oats,  or  bran,  bal- 
anced with  corn  and  hay,  will  furnish  a  satisfactory 
ration  for  the  mare  before  and  after  foaling.  The 
same  precaution  should  be  taken  to  diminish  the 
food  supply  when  the  colt  is  born  as  when  the  calf 
is  born.  The  mother  at  foaling  time  is  in  a  fever- 
ish condition,  and  weak  also.  She  should  be  fed 
only  what  is  needed  for  appeasing  the  appetite. 


THE  FEEDING  OF   BREEDING  ANIMALS 


153 


Succulent  grass  is  cooling  and  is  never  objection- 
able. The  grain  allotment  for  a  day  or  two,  how- 
ever, should  be  small  and  should  consist  of  ground 
oats  or  wheat  bran,  or  both,  without  corn. 

After  a  day  or  two  the  milk  secretion  will  become 
active  and  the  mare  will  recover  her  appetite.  For 
a  week  or  ten  days  she  should  have  complete  rest, 
preferably  in  a  paddock,  or  the  run  of  a  pasture  will 


ROUNDING  THEM  UP  IN  THE  PASTURE 

do.  When  put  to  work  at  the  end  of  this  rest  period, 
her  tasks  should  be  of  a  light  nature  at  first,  not  of 
long  duration,  and  not  in  excessive  heat  or  sunshine. 
Gradually  increase  the  rations  until  a  liberal  sup- 
ply is  given  so  as  to  meet  the  demand  occasioned  by 
work  and  the  production  of  milk. 

The  Ewe. — In  localities  where  the  ground  re- 
mains uncovered  during  much  of  winter  flock  mas- 
ters are  fortunate  because  of  the  pasture  and  the 
tough  sod  on  which  the  sheep  can  at  times  be 
grazed.  Lambs  will  not  come  large  and  strong  un- 
less the  ewes  have  been  properly  fed,  properly 


154  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

housed,  and  properly  exercised.  Where  pasture  is 
not  available  during  the  winter,  no  feeds  are  quite 
as  good  as  alfalfa  and  clover  hay.  Either  may  be 
fed  once  or  twice  a  day.  If  but  one  feed  of  either  is 
given,  then  good  corn  stover,  or  millet,  or  even  oat 
straw,  may  be  used  as  a  roughage  for  the  other  feed. 
Peas  and  oats,  vetches,  and  cowpea  hay,  are  all  ex- 
cellent roughage  feeds  for  breeding  ewes. 

When  thus  supplied  with  good  fodder,  the  ewes 
do  not  need  much  grain  until  toward  the  approach 
of  the  lambing  season.  They  will  be  in  better  con- 
dition, however,  at  lambing  time  if  they  have  been 
fed  a  small  quantity  of  grain  previously.  Whole  oats 
are  very  suitable  for  them,  but  what  is  better  is  a 
little  bran  or  oil  cake  along  with  the  oats.  Neither 
the  bran  nor  the  oil  cake  is  necessary,  but  either  or 
both  will  add  to  the  efficiency  of  the  ration.  Field 
roots  are  also  excellent,  but  before  lambing  it  is  not 
necessary  to  feed  more  than  two  or  three  pounds  a 
day.  If  roots  cannot  be  had,  and  corn  silage  is  avail- 
able, it  will  be  in  order  to  feed  silage  at  least  once  a 
day.  Either  clover  or  alfalfa  goes  admirably  with 
silage. 

Sheep  will  take  ample  exercise  if  given  the  free- 
dom of  one  or  more  fields  when  the  snow  is  not  deep 
or  altogether  absent.  It  is  only  when  snow  is  deep 
and  the  ewes  are  unable  to  move  about  that  they  are 
in  danger  of  becoming  too  sluggish.  The  more 
highly  they  are  fed,  the  more  sluggish  they  become. 
To  avoid  this,  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  some  of  the 
feed  in  racks  some  distance  away  from  the  shed,  but 
preferably  in  a  secluded  and  protected  spot.  The 


THE  FEEDING  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS  155 

ewes  will  find  their  way  to  these  racks  if  the  feed  is 
enticing,  and  thus  get  needed  exercise. 

If  the  lambs  are  to  come  early,  the  ewes  should  be 
in  the  pink  of  condition,  or  they  will  not  be  able  to 
keep  the  lambs  growing  well  until  grass  conies.  The 
grain  supply  should  be  small  at  first,  then  increased 
gradually.  Very  many  lambs  are  weakened  before 
birth  by  the  injudicious  feeding  of  the  mother. 

At  Lambing  Time. — After  the  lambs  begin  to 
come  let  the  grain  supply  be  reasonably  generous, 
so  as  to  provide  an  ample  milk  supply.  This  will 
follow  if  the  roughage  materials  suggested  above 
or  others  similar  to  them  are  given.  Milk-stimulat- 
ing concentrates,  which  mean  an  ample  amount  of 
protein,  are  positively  indispensable  if  a  generous 
milk  supply  is  to  be  obtained.  A  method  followed 
under  this  general  plan  will  be  certain  to  bring 
sturdy,  vigorous  lambs.  These  will  grow  rapidly, 
the  mothers  will  not  drop  off  in  flesh  materially,  and 
the  milk  will  be  abundant  and  nutritious  for  the 
sturdy  and  greedy  offspring. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


FEEDING  FARM  HORSES 

Food  Requirements  for  Horses. — Work  horses  re- 
quire protein  to  repair  the  broken-down  tissues ;  fats 
and  carbohydrates  to  produce  heat  and  energy.  The 
harder  an  animal  works,  the  more  food  required. 
The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  for  feeding  farm 
horses  are  shown  in  the  table  below.  They  indicate 
the  amount  of  food  required  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  and  are  for  horses  when  doing  light,  moder- 
ate and  heavy  work. 

WOLFF-LEHMANN   STANDARDS   FOR  HORSES 


Nature  of  work 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 

Lightly  worked  .  . 
Moderately  worked 
Heavily  worked  .  . 

20 
21 
23 

1.5 
1.7 

2.5 

19.5 
11.0 
13.3 

1:7.0 
1:6.2 
1:6.0 

A  Fundamental  Principle  in  Horse  Feeding  is  to 
use  a  relatively  smaller  quantity  of  roughage  and  a 
correspondingly  larger  amount  of  concentrates  than 
for  bovines.  The  kind  of  work  to  which  horses  are 
put  calls  for  the  least  possible  loa'd  on  the  digestive 
organs,  which  even  in  the  heavy  draft  breeds  are 
small,  particularly  the  stomach.  Hence,  the  food 


156 


FEEDING   FARM    HORSES  157 

of  the  horse  should  be  nutritious  in  quality,  be  sup- 
plied frequently,  and  in  comparatively  small  quan- 
tities. 

Nature  of  Food. — The  food,  of  whatever  variety — 
and  it  may  include  a  wide  range  of  feeding  materials 
— must  be  clean,  wholesome,  and  sound;  but  beyond 
this  no  specific  rules  can  be  laid  down,  except  that, 
generally  speaking,  reasonable  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  digestible  nutrients,  in  that  they  should 


WELL  BRED  AND  WELL  FED 

bear  the  proper  proportion  one  to  another.  The 
amount  and  character  of  the  food  must  vary  with 
the  size  of  the  horse  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
used,  the  climate  and  the  season,  and  the  section 
in  which  it  is  used. 

Character  of  Food. — The  horse  feeds  on  a  wider 
range  of  food  substances  than  is  popularly  supposed. 
In  Arabia,  where  stamina  and  sinew  are  famous, 
the  principal  food  is  barley  and  scant  herbage;  in 


158  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Ireland  it  is  dried  fish  mainly ;  in  England  hay,  oats, 
and  beans  comprise  the  food  supply  largely ;  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  rye,  barley  and  inferior  wheat 
make  up  the  grain  portion  of  the  rations;  while  in 
this  country  many  feeding  stuffs,  covering  a  wide 
range  of  roughage  and  grain,  find  their  way  into  the 
feed  mangers  and  satisfactorily  keep  the  horse  stock 
in  health  and  vigor. 

It  is  not  so  much  the  kind  of  food,  but  the  purity 
and  character,  that  count.  Moldy  hay  and  grain 
cause  many  of  the  ills  that  the  horse  is  heir  to  and 
imperfect  methods  of  preparation  and  curing  have 
cast  an  odor  of  unpopularity  on  many  meritorious 
feeds  that,  if  properly  handled,  would  be  eagerly 
sought  because  of  their  ease  of  production  or  rela- 
tively less  cost  when  compared  with  the  standard 
horse  feeds  of  each  particular  section. 

Requirements  for  Work. — Naturally  the  work  de- 
manded of  a  horse  will  influence  the  choice  and 
amount  of  food  its  caretaker  gives  it.  The  race 
horse  or  the  roadster,  fed  on  coarse  roughage  and 
little  grain,  will  be  greatly  handicapped  if  in  com- 
petition with  another  that  has  been  supplied  with 
nutritious  and  appetizing  concentrates  and  little 
rough  fodder  in  the  ration.  In  winter  the  draft  horse 
can  subsist  very  nicely  on  hay  or  fodder  and  little 
or  no  grain,  providing  the  work  is  light  and  the 
hours  of  labor  few.  But  this  same  horse,  when  put 
to  hard  labor  in  spring  and  summer,  at  plow,  culti- 
vator or  harvester,  will  demand  less  hay  and  more 
grain  if  the  highest  efficiency  is  to  be  had. 


FEEDING   FARM    HORSES 


159 


Farm  work  is  usually  not  of  a  strenuous  nature, 
even  in  the  busy  season.  On  some  days  and  during 
some  periods  the  work  is  light  and  not  infrequently 
there  are  many  days  of  rest.  At  such  times  less 
food  should  be  given,  but  the  feeding  should  be  done 


EQUAL  TO  ANY  TASK 

Heavy  farm  horses  require  nutritious  food  when  at  severe  work.  The 
grain  portion  of  the  ration  should  increase  or  decrease  in  accordance  with 
the  severity  of  the  work. 


in  such  a  fashion  as  to  keep  the  horses  in  good  work 
form  and  in  thrifty  condition. 

It  is  believed  by  many  feeding  experts  that  the 
protein  requirement  as  called  for  in  the  feeding 
standards  is  unnecessarily  high.  Many  good  rations 
have  been  studied  under  practical  test,  the  efficiency 
of  which  is  well  known,  and  the  conclusion  is  un- 


•l6o  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

questioned  that  with  our  feeds  and  under  our  work 
conditions  less  protein  is  required  than  what  the 
Wolff  standards  set  forth. 

Quite  recently  Kellner,  the  celebrated  German 
authority,  as  a  result  of  his  experiments,  stated  that 
the  large  quantities  of  protein  called  for  in  the  old 
standards  are  unnecessary  for  working  animals,  there 
being  required  only  enough  for  the  general  main- 
tenance of  the  animal  machine  and  to  insure  the  com- 
plete digestion  of  the  food.  To  bring  this  about  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  can  range  from  one 
pound  of  protein  to  eight  or  even  ten  of  carbohy- 
drates and  fat. 

This  view  is  substantiated  by  many  tests  in  this 
country.  Hence  the  conclusion  that  two  pounds  of 
protein  will  answer  the  requirements  for  that  nutri- 
ent for  a  1,000  pound  horse  doing  heavy  work  can 
be  accepted  as  both  conservative  and  wise  because 
of  the  less  expense  at  which  energy  can  be  obtained. 
Of  course  young  animals  not  fully  matured  will 
fare  much  better  when  rations  are  prepared  contain- 
ing more  protein.  In  cases  like  these,  and  where 
horses  are  put  to  very  severe  work,  the  older  stand- 
ard for  protein  is  to  be  recommended. 

Giving  Water. — In  a  state  of  nature  horses  feed 
upon  juicy  herbage  and  drink  at  pleasure  only  pure 
water  when  that  is  available.  No  animal  is  more 
delicate  and  fastidious  about  its  drink  than  the 
horse,  and  often  these  animals  will  suffer  agonies 
of  thirst  rather  than  quench  it  with  impure,  stale  or 
tepid  water.  Water  should  be  given  frequently  and 
in  small  quantities. 


FEEDING   FARM    HORSES  l6l 

Some  horses  require  more  water  than  others,  the 
quantity  varying  with  the  nature  and  amount  of  the 
ration,  the  propensity  to  sweat,  and  the  season  of  the 
year.  In  a  test  at  the  New  Hampshire  station  the 
amount  of  water  drunk  by  five  horses  was  recorded, 
showing  a  variation  of  from  25,895  pounds  to  32,997 
pounds  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Stale  or  foul  water 
from  a  neglected  cistern  is  unfit  for  a  horse  and  will 
be  refused,  except  in  case  of  extreme  thirst  or  when 
no  other  kind  is  provided. 

The  custom  of  not  giving  horses  a  drink  during 
the  forenoon  or  the  afternoon  when  working  in  the 
field  is  frequently  condemned  but  generally  fol- 
lowed. In  our  larger  cities  horses  are  often  never 
given  water  between  morning  and  evening.  This  is 
cruel,  of  course.  The  good  horseman  will  be  more 
thoughtful  of  these  dumb  beasts  intrusted  to  his 
charge.  Not  only  should  the  horse  be  permitted  to 
drink  his  fill  at  noon,  but  during  hot  weather  in  the 
dusty  fields  a  cool  drink  should  be  provided  also. 

Order  of  Hay,  Grain  and  Water. — In  a  broad  way, 
drinking  water  should  be  given  at  least  three  times 
a  day  to  horses  at  rest,  and  more  frequently  when 
at  work.  Small  quantities  of  water  may  be  given 
horses  at  work,  even  though  they  are  hot  and  tired. 
The  custom  is  rather  general  to  give  water  first, 
and  then  after  the  water  some  hay,  with  the  grain 
following  later.  When  horses  are  put  to  heavy  work 
their  noon  feed  should  consist  largely  of  grain.  After 
being  watered  the  grain  is  fed  and  some  hay  given, 
that  the  horse  may  eat  of  it  between  his  finishing  the 
grain  and  the  time  he  is  taken  out  to  work. 


162 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


Many  horses  show  impatience  when  taken  to  the 
stable  at  noon  and  are  given  hay  before  the  grain. 
For  the  evening  meal  the  grain  should  come  first, 
and  then,  after  a  brief  interval,  the  hay  portion  of 
the  ration.  A  drink  of  water  after  feeding  is  both 
humane  and  desirable. 

Regularity  in  Feeding  and  Watering. — Whatever 
system  of  feeding  and  watering  is  followed,  it  should 


SHOWING  THEM  OFF 

be  strictly  adhered  to  during  the  season.  Habit  is 
part  of  the  ration.  To  be  given  water  one  day  be- 
fore meals  and  the  following  day  after  meals,  is  as 
unsatisfying  to  the  horse  as  it  would  be  to  man.  If 
accustomed  to  grain  before  the  hay  at  noon,  there 
will  be  dissatisfaction  if  this  procedure  is  reversed 
the  following  day.  Drink  and  food  should  be  given 
at  about  the  same  time  each  day. 


FEEDING   FARM    HORSES  163 

Not  only  does  the  animal  know  when  to  expect 
its  grain  and  hay,  but  the  animal  system  adjusts  it- 
self accordingly,  and  discomfort  results  if  this  order 
is  not  adhered  to.  This  does  not  mean  that  a  set 
scheme  should  be  followed  throughout  the  year,  but 
rather  followed  during  certain  periods  of  the  year 
when  special  work  is  performed.  During  the  winter 
season  when  farm  horses  are  not  called  to  do  stren- 
uous or  regular  work,  a  different  plan  may  be  fol- 
lowed than  that  employed  in  the  summer  season, 
when  every  minute  counts.  But,  winter  or  summer, 
a  reasonable  regularity  should  be  required. 

Roughage  Feeds  for  Horses. — Timothy  hay,  oats 
and  corn  have  become  standard  articles  in  horse 
rations,  but  many  other  grasses  and  legumes  are 
equally  available  and  equally  satisfactory.  In  the 
middle  and  northern  states  the  red  and  alsike  varie- 
ties of  clover,  alfalfa  and  timothy  are  all  good  and 
may  be  fed  in  varying  amounts.  On  some  farms 
red  clover  hay  is  often  the  sole  food  of  the  work 
horse  during  the  winter  season.  It  is  a  balanced 
food  in  itself,  but  somewhat  too  bulky  to  be  used 
exclusively  when  these  same  horses  are  put  to  heavy 
farm  work. 

On  other  farms  corn  stover,  with  a  few  ears  of 
corn,  make  up  the  winter  ration.  Neither  of  these 
rations  is  to  be  considered  ideal,  but  each  would  be 
improved  if  the  two  were  mixed  together.  They 
would  give  variety,  a  factor  never  to  be  ignored, 
and  the  ration  would  be  improved  both  as  to  bulk 
and  proportion  of  digestible  nutrients. 

In  the  southern   states,   Bermuda,  herd's  grass, 


164  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

cowpea  hay,  corn  stover,  the  cereal  hays  with  or 
without  vetch,  and  other  legumes  and  grasses,  ad- 
mit of  considerable  choice  and  variety.  Although 
crimson  clover  is  frequently  fed  to  horses  it  is  not 
a  desirable  roughage  because  of  the  fuzzy  condi- 
tion of  the  clover  head.  Frequently  this  fuzz  curls 
up  into  balls,  lodges  in  the  intestinal  organs,  and 
causes  digestive  disorders  and  sometimes  death. 


EXERCISE  NECESSARY  EVEN  ON  FARMS 

When  not  worked  farm  horses  require  exercise.  If  at  pasture  this  is  un- 
necessary, but  during  winter,  or  if  pastures  or  paddocks  are  not  available, 
they  should  be  driven  or  led  about. 

In  the  western  states  many  of  the  cereal  hays, 
brome  grass,  alfalfa,  prairie  hay,  corn  stover,  timo- 
thy and  the  clovers  are  available.  These  allow  a 
wide  range  of  roughage  materials  for  horses.  In 
every  section  millet  grows  well  and  is  frequently 
fed.  If  cut  and  cured  just  as  the  first  blossoms  ap- 
pear, a  hay  scarcely  inferior  to  timothy  is  made. 
Overripe  millet  should  not  be  fed  to  horses. 


FEEDING   FARM    HORSES  165' 

Corn  stover  is  a  better  feed  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed, but  it  must  be  bright,  clean  and  well  cured. 
If  allowed  to  stand  in  the  field  for  months,  the  tops 
and  leaves  being  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  becomes 
unfit  for  fodder.  On  the  other  hand,  if  stored  in  the 
barn  when  damp,  it  is  quite  certain  to  mold,  and  if 
fed  in  this  condition  will  bring  on  trouble — diges- 
tive and  nervous  disorders.  Corn  stover  is  not  a 
well-balanced  food.  It  carries  little  protein  and 
much  of  the  carbohydrates.  With  it  should  go  some 
oats,  or  oats  and  corn,  or  corn  and  bran,  or  corn 
and  bran  and  one  of  the  oil  meals. 

The  truth  of  the  matter  is,  it  does  not  matter  very 
much  what  kind  of  roughage  is  fed  to  horses,  pro- 
viding the  roughage  is  well  cured,  free  from  dust, 
and  wholesome.  An  important  thing  is  to  provide 
concentrates  that  will  carry  the  nutrient  or  nutri- 
ents lacking  in  the  roughage  but  which  are  abun- 
dantly supplied  in  the  concentrates.  Thus,  if  legume 
hays  are  fed  the  concentrates  need  not  be  high  in 
protein,  and  if  the  roughage  is  of  a  carbonaceous 
nature,  like  timothy  or  corn  stover,  some  concen- 
trate like  bran  or  oil  meal  should  be  introduced  into 
the  ration. 

Grain  Feeds  for  Horses. — It  used  to  be  thought 
that  oats  were  indispensable  for  horses.  There  seems 
to  be  some  constituent  of  this  grain  that  gives  met- 
tle and  energy.  For  horses  of  the  roadster  type  and 
those  where  quick  action  is  demanded,  oats  should 
be,  and  no  doubt  will  continue  to  be,  a  principal  part 
of  the  ration,  but  for  farm  work  the  value  of  oats 
perhaps  has  been  overestimated.  Many  tests  have 


l66  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

been  conducted  in  which  various  feeding  stuffs  have 
been  compared,  and  the  oats  theory  has  been  over- 
thrown. It  is  not  so  much  the  kind  of  concentrate, 
but  rather  that  the  grain  portion  shall  contain  the 
digestible  nutrients  in  the  best  balance  and  that 
they  be  of  an  easily  digestible  nature. 

Indian  corn  shares  with  oats  popularity  as  a  horse 
food.  Corn  is  a  very  concentrated  food,  is  heating, 
but  deficient  in  muscle-forming  elements.  If  fed 
in  combination  with  timothy  or  corn  stover,  too  lit- 
tle protein  will  be  provided.  Concentrates  of  a 
nitrogenous  nature,  therefore,  should  be  admitted  to 
the  ration.  Oats  then  may  be  used,  or  bran,  or  the 
oil  meals,  indeed  practically  any  commercial  con- 
centrated feed.  Bran  and  oil  meal  are  laxative,  and 
are  particularly  good  when  succulence  otherwise  is 
not  to  be  had.  These  may  be  given  in  small  quan- 
tities daily,  or  fed  in  larger  quantities  two  or  three 
times  a  week.  Both  are  extremely  valuable  articles 
for  horses  and  may  be  fed  either  dry  or  in  mashes. 
When  fed  as  mash  once  a  week,  night  is  the  best 
time,  preferably  before  a  day  of  rest. 

Barley  is  a  principal  grain  food  for  horses  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  In  some  of  the  great  breeding 
stables  barley  and  oats  are  ground  together  in  pro- 
portions varying  with  the  season  and  fed  to  stallions 
and  mares.  Cottonseed  is  similar  in  its  chemical 
composition  to  linseed  meal,  but  is  more  highly  con- 
centrated and  contains  more  protein.  It  should  be 
fed  with  caution,  one  or  two  pounds  a  day,  and 
never  to  exceed  three  or  four  pounds.  This  concen- 
trate is  coming  more  and  more  into  favor,  but  some 


FEEDING   FARM    HORSES  l6/ 

horses  seem  never  to  learn  to  like   it.    It  is  more 
often  used  in  rations  for  mules  than  for  horses. 

The  carrot  is  the  root  crop  par  excellence  for  the 
horse.  It  serves  to  cool  the  system  and  assists  in  the 
digestion  of  other  food.  Only  a  few  roots  should 
be  fed  at  a  time  and  two  or  three  times  weekly. 
Salt  is  wholesome  and  beneficial  for  horses,  and  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  this  matter.  An  occa- 
sional feeding  of  salt  is  not  desirable.  Salt  should 
be  in  rock  form  and  placed  where  the  horses  can 
get  it  at  all  times  when  they  want  it. 

Selecting  the  Ration. — In  making  up  a  feeding  ra- 
tion for  a  horse  the  first  point  is  to  find  out  how 
much  the  horse  will  eat,  the  next  is  to  regulate  the 
ration  according  to  the  demand  to  be  made  upon  the 
animal,  whether  the  work  is  heavy  or  light,  regular 
or  irregular,  then  consider  the  feeding  stuffs  that 
are  available,  and  finally  the  season  and  the  weather. 
The  harder  the  work  and  the  colder  the  weather, 
the  greater  the  proportion  of  carbohydrates  required 
in  the  food.  Be  particular,  however,  to  get  enough 
protein,  even  though  it  necessitates  the  purchase  of 
some  concentrate,  that  the  horse  may  get  enough  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  body  machine  and  to  secure 
the  fullest  digestion  of  the  other  substances. 

Feeding  the  Stallion. — A  growing  three-year-old 
stallion  should  do  well  on  the  following  grain  feed : 
In  the  morning  five  quarts  of  oats  and  four  fair- 
sized  carrots ;  noon,  eight  to  10  quarts  of  mixed  feed 
consisting  of  two-thirds  bran  and  one-third  oats, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  hay,  if  chopped,  then  mixed 
with  the  grain,  and  dampened  with  water;  at  night, 


l68  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

the  same  mixture  as  at  noon.  After  the  horse  has 
finished  this  grain  ration  let  him  have  some  timothy 
and  clover  hay  in  addition ;  no  more  than  what  he 
will  eat  up  clean  should  be  given. 

What  has  been  said  in  reference  to  roughage  and 
grain  materials  will  apply  as  well  to  the  feeding  of 
the  stallion  as  to  work  horses.  The  stallion  should 


STALLION  FOR  FARM  USE 

not  be  overfed  but  kept  in  good  flesh  and  in  trim 
condition.  Exercise  is  necessary.  During  the  serv- 
ice period  he  should  have  a  large  box  stall  wherein 
he  will  have  freedom  to  move  around,  and  should  be 
exercised  out  in  the  open  air  a  half  hour  each  day. 
Light  work  in  harness  or  in  the  field  is  not  objec- 
tionable. This  will  keep  the  stallion  quiet,  make 
him  docile  and  contribute  to  vigor  and  health. 


FEEDING    FARM    HORSES  169 

Fattening  Horses  for  Market. — The  number  of 
horses  sold  annually  is  large  in  the  aggregate.  The 
animals  are  collected  from  all  over  the  country — 
one  from  this  farm,  one  from  that,  from  this  place 
and  that.  At  last  all  are  brought  together,  whence 
they  are  sent  to  the  larger  markets  in  great  num- 
bers. Every  farmer  who  has  sold  a  horse  knows 


HORSES  SELL  BEST  WHEN  FAT 

When  horses  are  to  be  sold  they  should  be  fat  and  sleek.     The  cost  of  labor 
and  feed  will  be  many  times  returned. 

that  each  brings  a  better  price  if  fat  than  if  poor. 
A  fattening  ration,  therefore,  will  be  profitable  for 
a  considerable  period  before  the  time  set  for  the 
sale.  Horses  will  gain  from  three  to  five  pounds 
daily  for  two  or  three  months  if  properly  fed. 

A  common  fattening  ration  consists  of  barley, 
sugar  beets,  corn  meal  and  bran.  The  sugar  beets 
are  mixed  with  barley,  25  pounds  of  beets  to  a 
bushel  of  barlev.  This  mixture  is  boiled  until  soft. 


170  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

To  every  three  pounds  of  this  mixture  two  pounds 
of  corn  meal  and  three  pounds  of  bran  are  added  and 
fed  warm,  mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  clean-cut 
hay.  In  addition  to  this,  a  pint  of  linseed  oil  meal 
is  fed.  As  much  salt  and  water  as  the  fattening  ani- 
mal relishes  are  given.  If  roots  are  not  available, 
then  a  few  pounds  of  silage  will  do.  In  place  of 
barley,  oats  may  be  substituted,  but  corn  should 
compose  a  large  part  of  the  ration.  Give  freely  of 
the  grain  mixture.  While  not  stinting  in  roughage 
materials,  these  should  be  held  down  to  the  mini- 
mum. A  horse  will  fatten  most  rapidly  on  the  grain. 

Feeding  Mules. — There  is  a  prevailing  notion  that 
mules  eat  less  than  horses.  Riley,  after  a  long  ex- 
perience with  thousands  of  army  mules,  maintains 
that  "a  mule  requires  just  as  much  as  a  horse  of 
similar  dimensions."  In  fact,  at  hard  work,  Riley 
says  "that  the  mule  will  eat  more  than  the  horse 
will  or  can."  In  general,  an  animal  that  eats  little 
is  a  poor  animal,  regardless  of  its  class  or  kind.  The 
mule  will  manage  to  get  along  on  poor  feed  given 
at  irregular  intervals,  but  this  neglect  is  manifest  in 
its  condition  and  efficiency.  What  has  been  said 
about  feeding  work  horses  applies  to  mules. 

Good  Rations  Commonly  Used. — The  following 
rations  are  in  common  use  at  various  times  and  in 
various  sections  of  the  country : 

1.  Timothy  hay,  12  pounds;  corn  meal,  n  pounds; 

malt  sprouts,  5  pounds. 

2.  Red  clover  hay,  8  pounds ;  oat  straw,  6  pounds ; 

corn  meal,   12  pounds;  wheat  middlings,    6 
pounds.. 


FEEDING   FARM    HORSES  17! 

3.  Alsike  clover,  8  pounds ;  corn  stover,  6  pounds ; 

corn  meal,  10  pounds ;  rye   bran,   6   pounds ; 
linseed  oil  meal,  2  pounds. 

4.  Timothy  hay,  12  pounds;  corn,  8  pounds;  oats, 

8  pounds. 

5.  Hay,  10  pounds ;  corn,  8  pounds ;  bran,  2  pounds ; 

linseed  oil  meal,  2  pounds. 

6.  Corn  stover  or  timothy  hay,  12  pounds;  oats  or 

bran,  7  pounds;  corn,  7  pounds. 

7.  Timothy  hay,  8  pounds;  corn  meal,  6  pounds; 

wheat  bran,  6  pounds;  oil  meal,  1.5  pounds. 

8.  Timothy  hay,  10  pounds  ;  gluten  meal,  6  pounds ; 

corn,  6  pounds ;  bran,  2  pounds. 

9.  Oat  hay,  12  pounds;  corn,   8   pounds;    bran,    5 

pounds. 

10.  Alfalfa  hay,   16  pounds;  bran  and  shorts,   13 

pounds. 

1 1.  Hay,  6  pounds ;  brewers'  grains,  8  pounds ;  oats, 

8  pounds;  corn,   4    pounds;    wheat    bran,    2 
pounds. 

12.  Hay,    15   pounds;   corn,    10   pounds;   oats,    13 

pounds,  wheat  bran,  6  pounds. 

These  last  two  are  for  very  heavy  horses  doing 
very  severe  work. 

In  the  far  West  a  common  ration  is  alfalfa  hay 
10  pounds  and  barley  12  pounds.  This  ration  has 
been  modified  elsewhere  by  using  alfalfa  hay  10 
pounds  and  corn  10  pounds,  and  increased  or  de- 
creased as  the  work  is  light,  moderate  or  severe. 
The  army  horses  in  the  cavalry  are  given  14  pounds 
of  hay  and  12  pounds  of  oats. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Food  Requirements  of  Dairy  Cattle. — The  Wolff- 
Lehmann  standards  for  feeding  the  various  classes 
of  dairy  animals  are  shown  in  the  table  below.  They 
indicate  the  amount  of  food  required  for  1,000 
pounds  live  weight,  and  are  for  growing  cattle  and 
for  cows  yielding  varying  qualities  of  milk. 

WOLFF-LEHMANN    STANDARDS    FOR    FEEDING    DAIRY 
CATTLE 


Kind  of  cattle 

Digestible  nutrients 

Dry 

Carbo- 

Nutritive 

matter 

Protein 

hydrates 

Fat 

ratio 

Growing  cattle 

Age  in 

months 

Weight 

2  to    3 

150 

23 

4.0 

13.0 

2.0 

1:4.5 

3  to    6 

300 

24 

3.0 

12.8 

1.0 

1:5.1 

6  to  12 

500 

27 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

1:6.8 

12  to  18 

700 

26 

1.8 

12.5 

0.4 

1:7.5 

18  to  24 

900 

26 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

1:8.5 

Milking  cows; 

when  yielding 

daily: 

11.0  pounds  milk 

25 

1.6 

10.0 

0.3 

1:6.7 

16.6  pounds  milk 

27 

2.0 

11.0 

0.4 

1:6.0 

27.5  pounds  milk 

32 

3.3 

13.0 

0.8 

1:4.5 

The  Milk-Yielding  Function. — In  milk  production 
some  breeds  have  become  markedly  specialized. 
The  function  of  giving  milk  is  natural  with  them, 
but  it  has  been  artificially  developed.  During  the 


172 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE  173 

lapse  of  the  centuries,  cows  have  been  saved  for  the 
dairy  because  of  their  tendency  to  give  much  milk 
or  milk  of  a  rich  quality.  The  milk-yielding  capac- 
ity of  the  breeds  was  not  achieved  in  one  genera- 
tion, or  in  two,  nor  can  it  be  discarded  readily  once 
it  has  become  habitual  to  the  breed,  the  strain,  or 
the  individual. 

To  the  practiced  eye  there  are  several  indications 
of  milky  tendency  in  dairy  cows.    These  are  known 


THE  MILK-YIELDING   FUNCTION    EXEMPLIFIED 

This  Jersey  cow  comes  from  a  long  line  of  milk  producers.     It  is  as  nat- 
ural for  her  to  give  milk  as  it  is  for  her  to  eat. 

to  be  the  wedge-like  shape  of  the  body  when  ob- 
served from  front,  side  or  rear;  the  width  between 
the  eyes ;  the  fine,  narrow  forequarters  and  broad 
spacious  hind  quarters ;  springing  ribs,  long  and 
wide  apart ;  the  refined  feminine  countenances ;  the 
hair,  silk-like  and  smoothly  laid  on  the  skin,  which, 
itself,  is  fine,  mellow,  and  soft  to  the  touch.  In 
addition  to  these  characteristics  the  stomach  should 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


be  prominent,  the  udder  large  and  neither  flabby  nor 
fleshy,  with  medium  large  teats,  evenly  set  ;  and  ex- 
tending forward  along  the  abdomen  should  be  no- 
ticed strong,  tortuous  milk  veins,  which,  carried 
internally,  are  admitted  by  means  of  large  milk 
wells.  These  external  traits  are  just  opposite  to 
those  that  mark  the  best  types  of  the  beef  breeds. 

What  Influences  Milk  Formation?  —  The  milk- 
yielding  function  is  hereditary  to  a  certain  extent. 
Certain  breeds  and  certain  strains  of  these  breeds 
possess  the  ability  to  yield  much  milk  and  to  trans- 
mit this  characteristic  to  their  offspring.  Other 
breeds  yield  very  little  milk,  and  no  manner  of  care 
or  feeding  will  largely  increase  the  amount  or 
change  the  character  of  its  quality.  Therefore,  it 
can  be  said  with  certainty  that  the  influences  back 
of  heavy  milk  formation  are  the  breed  and  the  in- 
dividuality of  the  cows  of  the  breed. 

Some  breeds  rank  high  as  milk  producers  in 
respect  to  quantity,  others  in  respect  to  quality; 
but  in  both  classes  much  variation  is  noted.  Among 
dairy  cows  there  remain  large  numbers  that  are  use- 
less as  milk  producers,  and  their  production  returns 
in  money  are  less  than  the  cost  of  keeping  them. 
In  time  the  milk  scales  and  Babcock  test  will  point 
these  out  and  they  will  be  discarded  from  the  dairy 
herds. 

How  Often  to  Milk.  —  The  custom  of  milking 
twice  a  day  has  become  fixed,  and  no  marked  ad- 
vantage is  secured  when  the  number  of  milkings  is 
increased.  Experience  and  experiments  show  that 
three  milkings  a  day  increase  the  amount  of  milk 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE 


175 


secured  less  than  7  per  cent.  Considering  the  ex- 
tra labor  involved,  the  extra  milk  obtained  by  three 
milkings  will  not  repay  the  cost  and  trouble. 

What  Age  of  Cow  Is  Best? — The  formation  of 
milk  is  closely  associated  with  the  birth  of  the  off- 
spring. The  yield  increases  for  several  months  after 
calving,  and  may  abruptly  or  gradually  decrease,  as 
the  case  may  be.  As  a  rule  the  fat  increases  slightly 
as  the  lactation  period  advances.  The  young  heifer 
generally  will  give  increasing  amounts  of  milk  with 
each  successive  calf  until  the  sixth  or  seventh  year, 
and  remain  near  that  point  a  few  years  longer,  then 
the  milk  flow  will  gradually  diminish. 


A  CLEAR  CASE  OF  DAIRY  TYPE 

Bred  for  the  dairy  this  cow  represents  the  highest  ideals  in  dairy  confirma- 
tion and  milk  production. 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

What  Influences  the  Quality  of  Milk? — So  far  as 
the  question  can  be  decided,  the  influences  that  bear 
most  on  the  quality  of  milk  are  breed,  heredity 
and  inherent  functional  capacity.  It  used  to  be 
thought  that  the  kind  of  food,  the  care,  and  the  sur- 
roundings influenced  the  quality  of  milk.  When  put 
to  actual  test  this  was  proved  to  be  incorrect.  The 
quantity  of  milk,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be,  and 
commonly  is,  influenced  by  the  amount  and  nature 
of  the  food,  the  treatment  bestowed,  and  the  atten- 
tion given  to  all  details  of  dairy  management. 

The  condition  of  the  mammary  gland  will  have 
much  to  do  with  a  heavy  milk  yield.  If  its  capacity 
is  limited,  naturally  the  results  will  be  apparent.  Its 
efficiency  is  dependent  upon  the  food  digested  and 
assimilated.  If  the  food  provides  the  various  nutri- 
ents abundantly  and  in  favorable  balance  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  body  and  of  milk  production,  the 
quantity  of  milk  will  reach  the  maximum  possibili- 
ties of  the  mammary  gland  and  the  quality  will  be 
in  accordance  with  the  functional  nature  of  this 
organ.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  quality  of  milk 
of  a  given  cow  is  without  special  variation,  but  that 
the  quantity  will  be  dependent  on  food  and  treat- 
ment. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  that  certain 
foods  influence  the  milk  yield.  Unappetizing  and 
ill-smelling  foods  depress  milk  secretion,  although 
they  normally  provide  the  nutrients  abundantly. 
The  same  foods  set  before  the  cows  in  more  appe- 
tizing and  tempting  ways  often  cause  an  increased 
flow,  although  no  more  provender  is  consumed. 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  177 

The  appetite  has  a  direct  connection  with  the  udder. 

Cows  that  are  annoyed  by  flies  and  other  insects, 
or  that  are  chased  about  by  dogs  or  other  tormen- 
tors, will  yield  milk  less  in  quantity,  and,  perhaps, 
poorer  in  quality,  than  if  they  are  placed  under  more 
comfortable  and  agreeable  conditions.  Dairymen 
are  more  and  more  realizing  the  importance  of  these 
facts  in  practice,  and  are  now  giving  much  attention 
to  the  simple  details  of  cow  comfort.  A  little  care 
at  this  point  assists  each  cow  of  a  herd  in  giving 
more  milk. 

Pastures  Are  Ideal  Basic  Rations. — In  early 
spring,  cows  are  usually  put  out  on  the  pastures  as 
early  as  there  is  food  enough  to  support  them.  New 
grass  has  generally  a  very  laxative  effect  on  the 
cows,  and  if  it  alone  is  relied  on,  it  often  has  a  very 
bad  effect.  This  can  be  avoided  by  feeding  only 
partially  on  grass,  completing  the  ration  through 
the  use  of  both  hay  and  concentrates.  In  a  short 
time  cows  become  accustomed  to  grass,  on  which 
they  may  then  be  left  to  subsist  entirely. 

Pasture  grass  is  one  of  our  best  foods.  It  is  succu- 
lent, fresh  and  appetizing,  and  possesses  a  high 
nutritive  value.  The  splendid  results  obtained  by 
having  cows  at  pasture  is  not  solely  because  the 
food  is  unusually  well  utilized  over  winter  rations, 
but  because  it  is  rich  in  nutriment.  It  ranks  with 
the  cereals,  and  everyone  knows  how  effective  such 
feeds  are  in  milk  production. 

No  doubt  more  protein  is  consumed  than  cows  re- 
quire when  feeding  on  pasture,  but  this  cannot  be 
avoided  unless  the  daily  grazing  period  is  limited 


178 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE  1/9 

and  some  substitute  of  a  carbohydrate  nature  like 
straw,  timothy,  or  stover  is  provided.  The  objec- 
tion lies  in  the  refusal  of  the  animals  to  eat  when 
such  are  put  before  them.  Once  the  taste  of  grass 
is  obtained,  cows  reject  other  foods,  often  including 
grain  concentrates. 

When  cows  in  milk  are  on  pasture  their  treat- 
ment is  very  simple,  and  quite  in  contrast  to  the 
diligent  necessities  of  the  stable  during  winter. 
Labor  is  largely  dispensed  with,  except  what  is  re- 
quired for  milking.  Cows  that  are  heavy  in  calf  are 
nowhere  so  well  treated  as  when  on  pasture.  They 
gather  their  own  feed,  and  even  on  scanty  pasture 
manage  to  add  flesh  and  to  get  in  good  shape  for  the 
fall  and  winter  season  of  milk  giving. 

Feeding  Grain  on  Pasture. — Many  things  enter 
into  dealing  with  the  problem  as  to  whether  grain 
shall  be  fed  on  grass  or  not.  Cows  do  give  more 
milk  if  given  grain  on  pasture,  but  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing the  milk  will  thereby  be  increased  and  the 
practice  may  not  be  economical.  Certainly  the 
cows  that  give  but  little  milk  should  not  be  grained 
when  on  good  pasture.  The  very  heavy  milkers  may 
be  given  grain,  anywhere  from  two  to  eight  pounds, 
depending  on  the  yield  and  the  nature  and  condition 
of  the  pasture.  One  pound  of  grain  to  every  10 
pounds  of  milk  may  be  given  to  the  lighter  pro- 
ducers, and  this  may  be  increased  to  one  of  grain  to 
six  of  milk  when  cows  are  yielding  from  40  to  50 
pounds  daily. 

The  kind  of  grain  will  depend  on  what  is  available. 
Corn  is  satisfactory  if  but  two  or  three  pounds  are 


ISO  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

given,  but  in  case  more  is  fed,  gluten,  cottonseed 
meal  or  bran  should  be  used  in  a  mixture  with  corn. 
Silage  is  a  valuable  summer  feed  and  frequently  is 
fed  in  summer.  It  is  fed  in  the  stable  after  milking 
and  before  the  cows  are  turned  out  to  pasture.  One 
feed  a  day  will  be  sufficient. 

When  Pastures  Are  Short  and  Parched. — During 
the  hot  days  of  late  summer  the  pastures  often  be- 
come parched,  dry  and  scanty.  At  this  time  great 


MATRONS  OF  THE  DAIRY  HERD 

care  is  needed  in  managing  the  dairy  herd.  Unless 
supplementary  food  to  the  pastures  is  fed  the  cows 
are  sure  to  drop  off  in  their  milk  flow,  and  once 
down  it  is  a  difficult  task  to  get  them  back  to  the 
point  at  which  they  were,  and  then  only  after  feed- 
ing liberally  with  grain. 

The  short-pasture  problem  may  be  overcome  by 
providing  soiling  crops  like  green  corn,  millet, 
alfalfa,  and  corn  silagfe.  If  a  patch  of  corn  be 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  l8l 

planted  on  warm  land  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
weather  will  permit  and  planted  thickly,  by  July  a 
great  abundance  of  green  forage  will  be  available 
for  green  feed.  This  may  be  fed  in  the  field  in  racks, 
or  on  the  grass,  or  in  the  stable  mangers.  A  very 
large  amount  of  succulent  food  can  be  provided  in 
this  way  at  no  great  expense. 

The  barnyard  millets  make  excellent  green  for- 
age. They  are  usually  ready  by  late  July  or  early 
August.  If  alfalfa  is  grown,  a  good  soiling  crop  is 
at  hand  when  needed.  Corn  silage  is  coming  more 
and  more  to  be  depended  upon  for  such  critical  peri- 
ods during  the  summer  season  and  early  fall.  Where 
many  cows  are  kept  the  silo  is  almost  indispensable. 

Let  the  Feeding  Standards  Serve  as  Guides. — In 
the  production  of  milk  in  winter  the  outlay  neces- 
sary for  food  is  much  greater  than  in  summer.  Not 
only  is  much  home-grown  roughage  consumed  by 
cows,  but  large  quantities  of  grain  also.  In  sections 
where  much  corn  and  alfalfa  are  grown  the  feeding 
of  dairy  cows  is  simple;  but  in  the  more  important 
eastern  dairy  sections,  where  corn,  if  grown  at  all, 
is  grown  largely  for  silage,  and  little  if  any  alfalfa 
or  clover  is  raised,  the  problem  of  feeding  cows  in 
winter  economically  calls  for  great  skill,  close  study 
and  correct  use  of  the  feed. 

The  most  accurate  means  of  determining  the  ra- 
tion that  any  class  of  cows  needs  is  by  calculation 
based  upon  the  feeding  standards.  There  is  more  to 
the  balanced  ration  than  is  usually  credited.  If  an 
insufficiency  of  protein  is  contained  in  a  given  ra- 
tion, the  cow,  if  she  is  possessed  of  a  milk-yielding 


182 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


tendency,  will  be  forced  to  rob  her  own  body  to  ob- 
tain it.  Hence,  she  will  lose  in  flesh  and  her  vital- 
ity will  be  lowered.  On  the  other  hand,  if  provided 
with  all  the  protein  she  requires  and  at  the  same 
time  if  slie  is  fed  more  carbohydrates  and  oils  than 
are  needed,  she  will  lay  on  fat,  and  sooner  or  later 
will  yield  less  milk.  If  fat  is  deposited  in  the  mam- 
mary glands,  milk  secretion  is  certain  to  be  dis- 


AN  INEXPENSIVE  COVERED  BARNYARD 

The  covered  barnyard  is  valuable  for  preserving  manure,  and  it  affords 
shelter  and  protection  during  the  winter  season.  The  idea  is  fast  becom- 
ing popular  on  dairy  farms. 

turbed  and  a  maximum  production  of  milk,  for  that 
lactation  period,  at  least,  impossible  to  be  obtained. 
Producing  Milk  Economically. — In  a  general  way 
the  production  of  milk  economically  will  be  depend- 
ent upon  high-producing  cows  and  cheap  home- 
grown feeds.  On  most  dairy  farms  the  food  raised 
is  of  a  roughage  nature,  but  just  as  much  of  this 
roughage  material  as  the  cows  will  eat  up  clean  at 
all  times  should  be  put  before  them.  If  the  legume 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  183 

hays  are  grown,  the  demand  for  concentrates  con- 
taining protein  will  be  much  lessened,  and  conse- 
quently the  expense  bills  for  grain  will  be  much 
smaller  than  otherwise  they  would  be.  But  even 
with  an  abundance  of  the  legumes  and  silage  some 
grain  will  be  called  for,  and  particularly  in  the  case 
of  heavy-yielding  cows.  Cows  with  30  to  50  pounds 
of  milk  to  their  daily  credit  will  not  usually  be  able 
to  manufacture  these  quantities  from  farm  rough- 
ages, even  though  legumes  and  silage  are  included. 
The  bulk  is  too  considerable  and  the  stomach  capac- 
ity of  the  cow  is  unequal  to  the  demand. 

This  difficulty  is  met  by  the  use  of  concentrates 
which  contain  only  small  amounts  of  fiber  and  other 
indigestible  substances.  Some  practical  dairymen 
introduce  the  grain  concentrates  freely  into  the  ra- 
tions, basing  the  quantity  on  the  amount  of  milk 
produced.  To  cows  yielding  20  or  more  pounds  of 
milk  a  day  one  pound  of  grain  is  added  to  the  daily 
ration  for  each  three  pounds  of  milk  or  for  each 
pound  of  butter  fat  produced  a  week.  If  much 
legume  roughage  is  fed,  these  amounts  may  be  les- 
sened to  one  pound  of  grain  to  every  four  or  five 
pounds  of  milk  or  butter  fat.  Cows  that  give  milk 
low  in  butter  fat  will  need  less  grain  in  proportion 
to  the  milk  yield,  and  those  high  in  butter  fat  will 
need  more.  It  is  a  delicate  problem,  each  cow  re- 
quiring individual  attention. 

Protein  Requirements. — Some  authorities  are  of 
the  opinion  that  the  Wolff  standards  for  dairy  cows 
in  milk  call  for  more  protein  than  is  necessary.  In 
the  Kellner  standards  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  pound 


184  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

less  of  digestible  protein  is  recommended,  and  many 
American  investigators  hold  to  the  same  view.  The 
suggested  change  in  this  respect  is  of  no  great  con- 
sequence, even  though  the  maximum  amount  of 
protein  is  generously  supplied.  If  legumes  and  pas- 
tures enter  into  the  rations,  an  oversupply  of  digesti- 
ble protein  is  easily  possible,  but  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  when  so  nourished  the  cows  give 
forth  their  best  production.  If  protein  has  a  stimu- 
lating effect  on  the  mammary  glands,  as  many  hold, 
a  generous  supply  is  to  be  preferred  to  even  a  slight 
deficiency. 

FEEDING  DAIRY  COWS  IN  WINTER 

Nature  of 'the  Food. — The  kind  of  food  for  feed- 
ing cows  in  milk  will,  of  course,  be  much  governed 
by  the  production  in  any  given  locality.  The  aim 
will  be  to  feed  approximately  a  balanced  ration.  On 
this  point  divergence  of  opinion  is  not  great.  Where 
fertility  is  in  equilibrium  the  aim  of  the  dairyman 
should  be  to  grow,  as  far  as  may  be  practicable,  the 
food  needed  on  his  own  farm.  He  can,  of  course, 
grow  his  own  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  more  and 
more  the  legumes  will  be  introduced  into  the 
cropping  system  on  dairy  farms.  In  this  way  it  will 
be  possible  to  obtain  much  of  the  protein  at  home. 
The  concentrates  that  will  be  used  will  be  pur- 
chased largely  because  of  their  strength  in  protein, 
and  will  be  bought  as  balancing  materials  and  not 
as  basic  fundamentals  of  the  ration. 

Foods  That  All  May  Grow. — A  few  foods  may  be 
looked  upon  as  standard  in  feeding  dairy  cows. 


FEEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE  185 

Nearly  every  dairyman  can  grow  these,  regardless 
of  his  location,  and  because  they  are  standard  foods 
he  ought  to  try  to  grow  them.  These  include,  as 
roughage,  plants  of  the  clover  family,  alfalfa,  corn 
silage,  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  corn,  peas  and  oats.  On 
every  dairy  farm  there  should  be  a  permanent  pas- 
ture, and  this  should  be  intelligently  handled,  that  it 


TURNED  OUT  FOR  EXERCISE 

Dairy  cows  will  be  most  healthy  when   given   the   run   of  a  pasture  during 
summer  and  fresh  air  and  exercise  during  pleasant  weather  in  winter. 

may  improve  steadily.  If  the  pasture  land  is  lim- 
ited, then  some  soiling  crops  should  be  introduced. 
These  include  rye,  peas  and  oats,  alfalfa,  clover, 
cowpeas,  soy  beans,  green  corn,  millet  and  other 
crops  of  local  adaptation. 

A  liberal  supply  of  these  feeds  is  indispensable 
for  milk  or  butter.  On  too  many  farms  there  is 
frequently  a  shortage  of  hay,  silage,  or  dry  prov- 


1 86  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

ender.  When  these  are  grown  insufficiently, 
either  the  cows  are  denied  full  rations  or  else  pur- 
chased feed  must  be  resorted  to.  Ordinarily  the 
high  prices  of  these  absorb  the  greater  part  of  the 
profits  of  the  dairy  business.  On  farms  where  the 
normal  supply  of  roughage  is  not  equal  to  the  re- 
quirement of  the  stock,  it  would  be  wiser,  safer  and 
better  to  dispose  of  the  least  productive  cows,  be- 


SILAGE  ONE  OF  OUR  BEST  DAIRY  FEEDS 

When  feed  is  high,  silage  is  practically  indispensable  in  dairying.  For 
winter  feeding  it  is  a  fair  substitute  for  summer  pasture,  for  corn  ensiled 
is  more  appetizing  than  if  fed  dry  and  in  the  rough. 

stowing  on  the  remaining  ones  more  care  and  feed- 
ing them  more  generously  on  the  roughage  material 
at  hand. 

Next  to  the  legumes  no  food  is  grown  that  pro- 
vides so  large  a  proportion  of  desirable  nutrients  as 
corn  preserved  in  the  silo.  The  nutrients  in  silage 
are  very  appetizing  for  winter  feeding.  Moreover^ 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE  187 

the  succulence  of  silage  is  beneficial;  it  aids  diges- 
tion, and,  of  course,  favors  milk  production.  It  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  wherever  dairy  cows  are  kept, 
the  silo  is  indispensable,  both  for  economical  feed- 
ing and  for  the  production  of  milk  at  a  reasonable 
profit. 

Available  Grain  Feeds. — The  list  of  concentrates 
for  dairy  cows  is  practically  unlimited.  The  cost, 
however,  must  be  considered.  It  is  not  enough  that 
a  concentrate  be  labeled  a  food  for  dairy  cows ;  it 
must  possess  a  relatively  large  amount  of  protein 
and  a  small  amount  of  fiber.  The  less  of  fat  and 
carbohydrates  in  proportion  to  the  protein,  the  bet- 
ter, provided  the  supply  of  home-grown  roughage 
feeds  is  sufficient  to  meet  the  demand.  In  the  past 
too  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  concentrates.  The  custom  has 
too  long  prevailed  of  buying  these  by  name,  where- 
as the  only  thing  that  counts  is  merit.  The  only 
sensible  rule  to  follow  is  to  study  the  composition 
of  each  feeding  stuff,  and  ascertain  which  kind  or 
brand  will  give  the  largest  quantity  of  digestive 
nutrients  and  the  largest  quantity  of  digestible  pro- 
tein. This  information  will  be  of  incalculable  value 
in  buying  feeds  and  will  be  a  means  of  saving 
money. 

Among  the  most  useful  and  best  liked  concen- 
trates are  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  oil  meal,  gluten 
meal,  gluten  feed,  bran,  brewers'  grain  and  malt 
sprouts.  The  several  by-products  of  starch  and 
cereal  food  factories  are  extensively  advertised,  but 
they  usually  sell  for  more  than  they  are  worth. 


l88  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Cereal  grains  are  often  fed  dairy  cows,  corn  more 
so  than  other  cereals.  On  farms  where  alfalfa  and 
clover  form  the  bulk  ration,  corn  may  be  fed  if  its 
market  value  is  on  a  level  with  better-class  meals 
and  other  grains.  If  corn  silage  be  fed  in  connection 
with  timothy  or  mixed  grasses  and  corn  stover,  corn 
will  not  be  a  desirable  food.  There  will  be  wanted 
in  this  instance  and  in  others  like  it,  concentrates 
like  oil  meal,  wheat  bran,  gluten,  distillers'  grains  or 
other  concentrates  of  which  protein  is  the  predomi- 
nating factor. 

Grain  and  Quality  of  Butter. — The  character  of 
the  food  frequently  influences  the  quality  of  the  but- 
ter. The  white,  hard,  tasteless  character  of  winter 
butter  results  from  the  food  given.  Fresh  pasture, 
bright  legume  hays,  corn  silage  and  soiling  crops 
give  color  to  the  milk  and  to  butter.  Gluten  or  corn 
produces  a  soft  butter.  Wheat  bran  makes  a  harder 
butter  than  either.  If  much  of  gluten  is  introduced 
into  a  ration,  the  butter  will  be  soft,  but  its  hardness 
may  be  improved  by  the  use  of  cottonseed  meal,  a 
feed  that  makes  a  very  hard  butter.  By  mixing  the 
two,  a  better  grade  of  butter  will  be  obtained  than  if 
either  is  used  alone.  A  pound  or  two  of  cottonseed 
meal  when  the  cows  are  on  pasture  helps  to  counter- 
act the  objectionable  softness  of  butter  during  the 
pasture  season. 

FEEDING  YOUNG  DAIRY  STOCK 

During  the  First  Winter. — Calves  dropped  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer  will  be  growing  nicely  by 
the  time  they  are  put  up  in  their  winter  quarters.  A 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE 


i8g 


difference  of  opinion  still  obtains  as  to  whether  it  is 
better  to  raise  young  calves  intended  for  the  dairy 
on  skim  milk  or  on  whole  milk  during  the  first  few 
months  of  their  lives.  The  skim-milk  ration  is,  of 
course,  the  less  expensive  and  many  of  the  best 
dairymen  believe  it  develops  the  best  calves.  They 


PICKED  OUT  FOR  THE  DAIRY 

These  young  calves  have  been  fed  skim  milk  in  which  has  been  placed  a 
small  quantity  of  oil  meal.     Ground  oats  is  to  be  added  to  the  ration. 

claim  that  the  calves  so  fed  are  stronger  and  possess 
larger  capacity  for  digesting  rough  feed  subse- 
quently. Whichever  claim  is  nearest  to  being  cor- 
rect, it  is  a  fact  that  most  dairy  calves  are  now  raised 
on  skim  milk  or  milk  substitutes. 

In  either  method,  the  calves  should  be  early  ac- 
customed to  eating  grain,  grass,  and  later  in  the  fall, 


190  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

some  kind  of  legume  hay.  They  will  then  go  into 
winter  sturdy  individuals  able  to  render  a  good  ac- 
count of  the  feed  given  them.  The  spring-born 
calves  need  no  longer  be  given  milk,  though  they 
may  have  it  if  it  is  plentiful.  The  fall  calves,  how- 
ever, should  not  have  their  supply  cut  off  if  this  can 
be  avoided.  Let  both  classes  have  all  the  hay  they 
will  eat  up  clean.  It  is  poor  economy  to  limit  their 
roughage  supply.  You  want  big  stomachs,  large 
frames,  and  vigorous  individuals.  There  is  nothing 
so  good  as  a  plentiful  supply  of  good  legume  hay 
to  get  these  results. 

Satisfactory  Grain  Mixture. — Many  young  calves 
are  wintered  without  grain,  but  such  a  method  is 
not  to  be  recommended.  Some  grain  is  necessary 
if  steady  growth  is  sought.  A  mixture  of  coarse 
corn  meal  three  parts,  wheat  bran  one  part,  and  lin- 
seed oil  meal  one  part  will  give  very  satisfactory 
returns.  The  grain  is  to  be  given  in  two  feeds, 
morning  and  evening.  Hay  may  be  put  in  the  man- 
gers both  morning  and  night,  and  at  noon  also  if 
convenient. 

This  plan  of  feeding  may  be  followed  throughout 
the  winter,  the  amount  of  grain  being  gradually 
increased  as  the  calves  grow.  In  the  spring  the 
same  precaution  in  accustoming  the  animals  to  pas- 
ture should  be  observed  as  for  the  milk  cows.  When 
safely  settled  on  grass  the  grain  ration  should  be 
gradually  decreased  until  a  small  amount  is  fed,  or 
none  at  all.  The  governing  factors  will  be  the  kind 
and  character  of  the  pasture. 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  IQI 

During  the  Second  Winter. — The  calves  will  now 
be  far  along,  and  some  of  them  will  have  been  bred. 
The  roughage  food  will  be  of  a  character  similar  to 
what  it  was  the  first  winter.  The  same  liberality  in 
feeding  is  to  be  followed  and  the  grain  supply  is  to 
be  more  than  before.  Ground  oats,  wheat  bran  and 
linseed  oil  meal  will  now  be  more  largely  fed,  be- 
cause these  are  all  good  as  building  materials  and 
stand  high  as  carriers  of  mineral  substances. 

If  corn  is  expensive  or  limited  in  quantity,  it  can 
be  dropped  from  the  grain  mixture  altogether. 
Silage  is  excellent,  so  are  roots,  and  if  either  is  avail- 
able, a  limited  amount,  say  10  to  15  pounds,  should 
be  given  daily.  Fed  in  this  manner  dairy  calves  will 
enter  their  work  stalls  as  well-equipped  milk  pro- 
ducers, possessed  of  strong  constitutions,  rugged 
physiques  and  vitality  equal  to  long  service  and 
much  profit  to  their  owners. 

STABLE  MANAGEMENT 

Salt  and  Water. — Cows  should  have  salt,  either 
added  to  their  rations  or  furnished  in  lump  form 
where  it  can  be  taken  at  will.  In  the  latter  way 
they  may  take  too  much.  If  added  to  the  feed,  from 
a  half  ounce  to  an  ounce  and  a  half  should  be  fur- 
nished daily  to  each  cow.  Cows  do  not  need  to  have 
water  kept  before  them  continuously,  summer  or 
winter.  They  need  a  liberal  supply  at  all  seasons, 
however;  and  ice  water  is  not  good,  since  they  often 
will  drink  really  less  than  they  need'.  If  comforta- 
bly stabled  in  the  winter,  natural  water,  even  if  cold, 
will  be  satisfactory. 


IQ2  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

The  Practice  of  Dishorning,  is  to  be  encouraged, 
as  cows  seem  to  give  more  milk  and  are  more  safely 
handled. 

The  Tuberculin  Test,  consistently  employed,  will 
eradicate  tuberculosis  from  a  herd.  It  has  no  effect 
on  the  yield  of  milk  and  butter  fat. 


WATER  AVAILABLE  ALL  THE  TIME 

Dairy  cows   require  an   abundance  of  water,   and  they  want  it   fresh   and 
clean.     In  the  winter  they  should  not  be  required  to  drink  ice  water. 

The  Herd  Bull  should  not  be  permitted  to  run  in 
the  pastures  with  the  cows,  as  is  the  custom  on 
many  farms.  Much  exercise  is  advisable  and  may 
be  provided  for  by  run  lots,  moderate  work  in  special 
instances,  and  in  the  use  of  chain  and  ring  attached 
to  cable.  The  bull  may  be  stabled  in  stall  or  box 
stall  in  the  same  building  with  the  cows,  or  kept  in 
a  small  outside  building  where  shelter  is  available. 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE  193 

In  a  small  run  connected  with  the  building  freedom 
and  exercise  may  be  had.  Food,  similar  in  character 
and  amount  to  that  given  the  cows,  usually  is  fed. 
Nutritious  roughage  and  succulent  food  should  be 
supplied  generously,  and  may  form  the  bulk  of  the 
ration.  During  the  period  of  greatest  service,  rich 
food  of  a  protein  character  should  be  fed  liberally. 
The  Order  of  Supplying  the  Food  will  vary  as  cir- 
cumstances arise.  Certain  foods,  like  cabbage,  sil- 
age and  turnips,  will  be  less  likely  to  taint  the  milk 
if  fed  after  milking.  Grain  may  be  given  just  before 
or  some  time  previous  to  milking.  In  the  case  of 
hay  less  trouble  will  follow  from  dust  and  odors  if 
fed  after  milking.  The  following  order  is  followed 
on  many  up-to-date  dairy  farms :  Milking,  first ;  then 
the  grain  feeding ;  then  silage  or  roots ;  stable  clean- 
ing while  the  cows  are  watering;  following  this 
work  come  hay  feeding  and  grooming.  If  the 
weather  is  pleasant,  the  cows  are  turned  out  for  ex- 
ercise and  morning  air.  Towards  evening  the  cows 
are  watered,  fed  grain,  milked,  fed  the  silage  or 
roots,  and  then  are  given  their  final  supply  of  hay. 

SOME  SAMPLE  RATIONS 

For  Dairy  Calves. 

Provide  a  grain  mixture  consisting  of  ground  oats 

and  corn  meal,  each  three  parts,  and  oil  meal 

and  bran,  each  one  part. 
In  summer:  Keep  on  pasture  and  give  about  2 

pounds  of  the  mixture  to  six-month  calves,  3 

pounds  to  yearlings  and  4  pounds  to  those  18 

months  old  if  pasture  is  short. 


194  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

In  winter:  Continue  the  grain  mixture,  giving  the 
yearlings  4  pounds  and  those  18  months  old 
6  pounds.  Let  them  have  all  the  alfalfa, 
clover  or  cowpea  hay  they  will  eat  up  clean. 

Dry  Cows  in  Summer: 

1.  Give  run  of  pasture. 

2.  If  pasture  is  very  short,  as  calving  time  ap- 

proaches feed  from  I  to  3  pounds  of  bran 
daily. 

Dry  Cows  in  Winter: 

1.  Clover,  alfalfa  or  mixed  hay,  15  pounds;  corn 

silage,  20  pounds. 

2.  All  hay  and  stover  cows  will  eat.    As  parturi- 

tion approaches  use  up  to  3  or  4  pounds  of 
wheat  bran,  beginning  at  i  pound  daily  at 
first. 

For  Cows  Yielding  From  1 6  to  25  Pounds  of  Milk 
Daily: 

1.  Corn  silage,  40  pounds;  clover  hay,  15  pounds; 

ground  corn,  3  pounds;  cottonseed  meal,  i 
pound. 

2.  Cowpea    hay,     15    pounds;    corn    stover,     10 

pounds;  corn  silage,  30  pounds;  cottonseed 
meal,  2  pounds. 

3.  Alfalfa  hay,  18  pounds ;  corn  silage,  35  pounds. 

4.  Corn  stover,  15  pounds;  corn  meal,  i  pound; 

linseed  meal,  2  pounds ;  wheat  bran,  5  pounds  ; 
cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds. 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE  195 

5.  Sorghum  fodder,   50  pounds;  hay,  7  pounds; 

bran,  4  pounds ;  corn  meal,  3  pounds ;  oil  meal, 
2  pounds. 

6.  Corn  fodder,  8  pounds ;  clover  and  timothy  hay, 

7  pounds ;  sheaf  oats,  5  pounds ;  rutabagas,  3 
pounds ;  bran,  2  pounds ;  oats,  3  pounds ;  corn 
meal,  3  pounds ;  oil  cake,  2  pounds. 

7.  Prairie     hay,    20    pounds;     corn     fodder,     10 

pounds ;  corn  meal,  6  pounds ;  bran,  3  pounds  ; 
oil  meal,  1.5  pounds. 

8.  Clover  hay,  10  pounds;  corn  stalks,  20  pounds; 

corn  and  cob  meal,  10  pounds;  bran,  I  pound; 
roots,  8  pounds. 

9.  Alfalfa,  35  pounds ;  bran,  7  pounds ;  barley,  3.5 

pounds. 

10.  Hay,  10  pounds;  silage,  35  pounds;  bran,  3 
pounds ;  corn  and  cob  meal,  3  pounds ;  gluten 
meal,  2  pounds ;  cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds. 

For  Cows  Yielding  from  25  to  40  Pounds  of  Milk 
Daily: 

1.  Corn  silage,  40  pounds;  clover  hay,  15  pounds; 

ground  corn,  3  pounds;  cottonseed  meal,  4 
pounds ;  wheat  bran  or  gluten  meal,  3  pounds. 

2.  Corn  silage,  35  pounds ;  corn  stover,  6  pounds ; 

wheat  bran,  4  pounds ;  dried  brewers'  grain,  4 
pounds;  cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds. 

3.  Soy    bean    silage,    35    pounds ;    alfalfa    hay,   8 

pounds ;  corn  meal,  6  pounds. 

4.  Crimson  clover  hay,  10  pounds;  cowpea  silage, 

35  pounds ;  dried  brewers'  grain,  5  pounds ; 
cottonseed  meal,  2  to  4  pounds. 


196 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  1 97 

5.  Corn  silage,  40  pounds ;  corn  stover,  7  pounds ; 

wheat  bran,  5  pounds;  dried  brewers'  grain, 
5  pounds ;  cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds. 

6.  Alfalfa  hay,  20  pounds ;  corn  meal.  8  pounds ; 

cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds. 

7.  Alfalfa  hay  or  clover  hay,  15  pounds;  corn  sil- 

age, 20  pounds ;  bran,  3  pounds ;  linseed  oil 
meal,  2  pounds ;  ground  oats,  2.5  pounds ; 
hominy  feed,  2.5  pounds;  gluten  feed,  5 
pounds. 

8.  Clover,  alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay,  10  pounds ;  green 

cut  corn,  40  pounds ;  hominy  feed,  5  pounds ; 
cottonseed  meal,  i  pound;  distillers'  grain,  8 
pounds. 

9.  Corn  silage,  35  pounds ;  clover  hay,  9  pounds ; 

corn,  5  pounds ;  cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds ; 
bran,  2  pounds. 

10.  Mixed  hay,  15  pounds;  dried  beet  pulp,  4 
pounds;  gluten  feed,  2  pounds;  cottonseed 
meal,  2  pounds;  corn  meal,  2  pounds. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 

Food  Requirements  for  Beef.— The  Wolff-Leh- 
mann  standards  for  feeding  the  various  classes  of  cat- 
tle are  shown  in  the  table  below.  They  indicate 
the  amount  of  food  required  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  and  are  for  both  growing  and  fattening  beef 
animals. 

WOLFF-LEHMANN  STANDARDS  FOR  FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


Digestible  nutrients 

Dry 

Carbo- 

Nutritive 

Kind  of  cattle 

matter 

Protein 

hydrates 

Fat 

ratio 

Growing  cattle 

Age  in 

months 

Weight 

2  to    3 

160 

23 

4.2 

13.0 

2.0 

1:4.2 

3  to    6 

330 

24 

3.5 

12.8 

1.5 

1:4.7 

6  to  12 

550 

25 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

1:6.0 

12  to  18 

750 

24 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

1:6.8 

18  to  24 

950 

24 

1.8 

12.0 

0.4 

1:7.2 

Fattening 

:  cattle 

First   p 

eriod 

30 

2.5 

15.0 

0.5 

1:6.5 

Second 

period 

30 

3.0 

14.5 

0.7 

1:5.4 

Third 

period 

26 

2.7 

15.0 

0.7 

1:6.2 

Wild  Cattle  Are  Seldom  Fat. — Animals  in  a  wild 
state  are  not  easily  fattened.  It  has  taken  many  cen- 
turies of  careful  selection  and  breeding  to  bring  the 
cattle  of  the  plains  or  the  lowlands  or  the  mountains 
up  to  a  point  at  which  they  will  lay  on  gains  rapidly 
and  at  a  reasonable  cost.  It  has  been  the  work  of 


FEEDING    BEEF    CATTLE  IQ9 

the  breeder  to  select  out  of  the  whole  those  individ- 
uals that  were  most  disposed  to  fatten  easily  and 
naturally,  and  use  them  as  foundation  stock  for  an 
ever-improving  race  of  meat  animals. 

In  time  breeds  have  been  developed  that  repre- 
sent in  a  high  degree  this  tendency  or  disposition 
to  give  rapid  increase  and  to  fatten  readily.  With 
all  the  care,  however,  there  is  a  large  proportion  of 
the  cattle  stock  that  is  still  inferior  for  any  purpose 
for  which  it  might  be  selected. 


THE  SAME  Cow,  SIDE  AND  REAR 

Here  is  a  typical  beef  type.    Observe  how  she  differs  from  the  typical  dairy 
cows  previously  shown. 

Success  in  the  feed  lot  will  depend  on  the  class 
and  the  inheritance  of  the  animals  selected.  Hence, 
in  fattening  cattle,  the  first  task  is  to  select  the  right 
kind  of  animals — those  that  have  been  bred  to  fat- 
ten, that  possess  hidden  quality  and  that  are  of  the 
conformation  which  practical  experience  has  shown 
to  be  associated  with  rapid  increase  and  tender, 
juicy  meat. 

Younger  Stock  Now  Being  Fattened. — In  the  old 
days  cattle  were  carried  along  for  four  or  five  years 


2OO  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

and  then  fattened.  The  new  idea  is  to  grow  beef. 
Young  animals  are  now  brought  to  maturity  and 
finish  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible.  If  steers  can 
be  brought  by  liberal  treatment  to  marketable 
weight  at  12  or  18  months  old,  the  amount  of  food 
consumed  will  be  smaller  than  if  two,  three  or  more 
years  are  spent  in  attaining  the  same  weight.  Thus 
the  food  that  would  have  been  consumed  for  animal 
heat  and  energy  during  the  longer  period  can  be 
saved. 

Of  course  only  a  good  class  of  cattle  can  be  chosen 
if  this  style  of  beef  making  is  to  be  followed.  There 
will  be  no  place  in  it  for  scrub  animals.  Only  highly 
bred  individuals  possessing  good  quality,  good 
health,  and  right  type  can  be  used  to  win  in  this  race 
of  quick  finish.  But  it  is  obvious  that  when  steers 
can  be  brought  to  market  condition  at  an  early  age 
the  profit  can  be  greatly  increased. 

This  method  of  beef  raising  means  more  than  the 
selection  of  animals  having  a  disposition  to  fatten. 
It  requires  more  on  the  part  of  the  feeder,  and  also 
better  feeds,  prepared  in  appetizing  forms  and  so 
compounded  as  to  meet  the  food  requirements  at 
every  stage  of  growth. 

GOOD  AND  BAD  BEEF  STOCK 

Character  of  a  Good  Steer. — The  steer  that  will 
fatten  readily  is  low-set,  deep,  broad  and 
compact,  rather  than  long-legged,  gaunt,  narrow  and 
loosely  put  together.  The  broad,  compact  form  indi- 
cates good  constitution.  Low-set  animals  are  usu- 


FEEDING   BEEF   CATTLE  2OI 

ally  good  feeders.  The  top  and  the  under  lines 
should  be  nearly  parallel.  Prominent  hips,  tail,  head 
and  shoulders  should  be  avoided,  as  smoothness  of 
outline  is  essential. 

Good  quality  is  indicated  in  a  smooth,  refined 
head,  fine  bones,  and  thin  skin,  with  a  covering  of 
silk-like  hair.  The  skin  should  be  loose  and  mellow. 


A  BEEF  STEER  OF  HIGH  QUALITY 

This  animal  is  Black  Rock,  the  grand  champion  steer  of  the  1905  Inter- 
national live  stock  show.  He  was  a  good  feeder  and  rendered  a  splendid 
account  of  all  the  feed  he  consumed. 


Strong  constitution  is  indicated  by  a  wide,  deep 
chest,  long  and  well-sprung  ribs,  compactness  of 
form  and  fineness  of  bone. 

Two  Classes  of  Beef  Animals. — It  is  obvious  that 
lean  feeding  animals  that  have  depended  on  scant 
pastures  require  a  different  ration  when  put  in  the 
feed  lot  than  those  in  moderate  condition.  In  the 
thin  stock  the  fibers  of  the  flesh  need  development 


2O2  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

in  order  that  fat  may  be  stored  in  between  and 
among  them.  Such  animals  require  a  feeding  period 
of  three  or  four  weeks,  in  which  a  greater  quantity 
of  protein  will  be  given  than  later  on. 

After  this  preliminary  feeding  the  proportion  of 
carbohydrates  and  fats  may  be  increased.  A  limit 
as  to  the  amount  of  fat,  however,  is  to  be  observed. 
When  more  than  a  couple  of  pounds  of  digestible 


ROUGH  FEEDERS 
Poor  stock  and  poor  feed,  without  exception,  mean  poor  farming. 

fat  are  taken  into  the  system,  the  appetite  and  the 
digestion  are  disturbed.  A  ration  containing  from  a 
pound  to  a  pound  and  a  half  is  to  be  preferred  to  one 
containing  two  pounds  of  fat  or  more. 

Nature  of  the  Ration. — During  the  period  of 
growth  and  approach  of  fattening  the  amount  of 
roughage  food  may  be  considerable.  This  will  de- 
crease as  the  fattening  period  advances,  and  more 
of  the  concentrates  will  be  introduced  to  meet  the 
changing  needs  of  the  fattening  ration.  For  inten- 
sive feeding  the  coarse  fodders,  like  stover  and 
straw,  must  give  way  to  the  legume  hays  and  grain. 


FEEDING    BEEF    CATTLE  2O3 

Pasture  is  a  splendid  food,  but  high  finish  is  sel- 
dom possible  with  it  as  the  exclusive  feed.  A  short 
period  in  the  feed  lot  with  corn  and  oil  meal  or  cot- 
tonseed meal  is  necessary.  Pasture  feeding  is  neces- 
sary for  profitable  money  returns  covering  the 
greater  part  of  the  life  of  the  steers.  The  better  the 
condition  when  taken  from  pasture  the  quicker  the 
steers  can  be  finished,  and  consequently  the  greater 
the  profit. 

Even  at  best,  finishing  cattle  is  a  risky  business 
and  needs  to  be  watched  with  sharp  eyes.  But 
heavy  feeding  is  desirable.  To  stretch  out  the  fat- 
tening period  is  to  increase  the  risk  and  to  lessen 
the  profit  unless  favored  by  a  rising  market.  Quick 
work  in  the  feed  lot  is  usually  cheap  fattening. 

FROM  CALF  TO  STEER 

Feeding  Calves  Intended  for  Beef. — Two  methods 
of  feeding  are  open  for  young  calves.  One  is  to  al- 
low the  calf  to  remain  with  and  take  its  milk  from 
its  mother,  the  other  is  to  remove  the  calf,  substi- 
tuting skim  milk  for  the  whole  milk.  The  latter 
plan  is  extending  for  the  reason  that  butter  fat  is 
important,  commercially.  The  skim  milk  fed  calf, 
while  at  a  disadvantage,  can  be  profitably  developed. 
Excellent  substitutes  for  the  fat  in  the  milk  are 
available  in  the  grains  and  can  be  secured  at  a  small 
cost  compared  with  butter  fat. 

A  calf  raised  at  its  mother's  side  makes  rapid 
growth  and  at  weaning  time  is  in  excellent  flesh. 
The  skim  milk  calf  is  usually  not  so  plump  but  is 


204 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


of  larger  frame  than  the  whole  milk  fed  calf.  Which- 
ever method  is  followed,  in  either  case  the  calves 
should  be  grained  in  accordance  with  their  needs 
while  on  the  milk  diet.  They  should  be  fed  grain 
just  as  soon  as  they  will  take  it. 

The  Skim  Milk  Calf  should  have  oil  meal  added 


SELECTED  FOR  BABY  BEEF 

These  calves   are  ready  to   fatten   for  baby  beef.     Well-bred   individuals   of 
good  form  and  quality  are  necessary  for  success  in  this  kind  of  feeding. 

to  its  milk  diet  while  the  change  from  whole  to  skim 
milk  is  under  way.  At  first  a  very  small  amount, 
as  little  as  a  tablespoonful,  may  be  given.  This 
quantity  will  be  increased  when  whole  milk  is  no 
longer  given,  and  still  further  increased  as  the  calf 
grows  older  and  larger. 


FEEDING   BEEF    CATTLE 


205 


These  calves  should  be  on  pasture,  be  fed  oil  meal 
and  skim  milk  twice  each  day,  have  clean  water 
available  for  drink,  and  have  placed  before  them  a 
mixture  of  other  grains  like  cracked  corn,  wheat 
bran  and  ground  oats.  If  encouraged  they  will  at 
first  nibble  this;  in  time  they  will  eat  it  greedily. 


GOOD  VEAL 

Veal  calves  sell   at  good  prices,  but  they  withdraw  vast  numbers  from  the 
supply  of   available   cattle  stock. 

But  so  fed  they  will  show  steady  growth  and  carry 
good  flesh. 

Calves  on  Whole  Milk  will  show  fine  flesh  at 
weaning  time.  If  allowed  to  run  with  their  dams  on 
good  pasture,  but  little  additional  food  than  the  milk 
will  be  necessary.  It  is  an  excellent  practice,  how- 
ever, to  encourage  whole  milk  calves  to  eat  grain 


2O6  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

as  soon  as  they  will  take  to  it.  Ground  oats,  bran 
and  corn  comprise  a  mixture  that  always  fetches 
good  results.  Whole  milk  calves  when  separated 
from  their  mothers  should  have  the  run  of  a  good 
pasture,  and  the  grain  mixture  should  be  fed  in  in- 
creased quantities  right  up  to  weaning  time.  Ordi- 
narily no  mishaps  will  occur,  and  after  being  weaned 
the  calves  will  hold  their  flesh  and  keep  on  gaining 
steadily. 

Making  Veal. — While  much  veal  is  made  from 
feeding  skim  milk  and  milk  substitute  grains,  un- 
doubtedly the  highest  quality  of  veal  is  obtained 
by  exclusive  whole  milk  feeding.  The  calf  is  either 
left  with  its  dam  or  is  early  taught  to  drink  milk 
from  the  pail.  If  the  latter  method  is  followed,  it 
may  be  given  all  the  milk  it  will  consume.  If  for 
any  reason  additional  food  is  given,  let  it  be  of  an 
easily  digestible  nature,  and  reasonably  high  in  pro- 
tein. In  other  words,  the  nearer  it  resembles  milk 
the  better. 

Veal  calves  should  be  comfortably  housed  and  re- 
stricted in  their  freedom  of  running  about.  Much 
exercise  calls  for  much  food,  hence  makes  more  diffi- 
cult the  work  of  fitting  for  the  market.  An  increase 
of  il/2  to  2.y^  pounds  in  live  weight  should  be  ex- 
pected daily.  Ordinarily  a  gain  of  one  pound  will 
be  made  from  each  gallon  of  milk  consumed.  Strong, 
sturdy  calves  will  take  from  a  gallon  to  a  gallon 
and  a  half  of  milk  soon  after  birth.  This  amount 
should  be  increased  steadily  until  a  couple  of  gallons 
or  more  are  daily  consumed. 


FEEDING   BEEF    CATTLE  2O7 

Feed  During  the  First  Winter.— The  aim  of  feed- 
ing during  the  first  winter  should  be  to  supply  in 
liberal  quantities  digestible  protein  and  mineral  mat- 
ter. Comfortable  quarters  must  be  provided  for 
protection  against  inclement  weather.  Shelter  is  of 
more  importance  during  the  first  winter  than  at  any 
subsequent  age.  Cattle  men  are  giving  less  atten- 
tion in  these  days  to  inclosed  stables  and  barns  than 


BABY  BEEF 

These  are  ready  for  market  and  will  be  sold  for  baby  beef.     Note  the  high 
quality    and   finish. 

formerly.  Open  sheds,  facing  the  sun  and  protected 
from  rains  and  storms,  will  satisfy  all  the  demands 
for  comfort  and  shelter  that  full-grown  steers 
require. 

The  kind  of  food  set  before  these  calves  will  de- 
pend somewhat  upon  the  age  at  which  they  are  to 
be  marketed.  If  they  are  to  be  finished  during  late 
spring  or  early  summer  on  grass,  they  should  have  a 
very  liberal  supply  of  food,  with  steadily  increasing 


2O8  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

amounts  of  grain.  The  protein  supply  will  be  kept 
up  because  of  the  rapid  growth  which  calls  for  this 
nutrient. 

Towards  the  close  of  winter  the  protein  require- 
ments decrease  markedly  in  proportion  to  the  live 
weight.  Hence,  the  albuminoid  ratio  of  the  ration 
of  growing  beeves  may  be  steadily  widened  to  the 
limiting  value,  which  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  one 
part  protein  to  eight  to  ten  of  the  carbohydrate 
equivalent.  Let  the  food  be  ample,  so  as  to  secure 
growth,  but  not  of  such  a  character  as  to  encourage 
too  rapid  fattening. 

The  best  results  will  be  secured  during  the  calves' 
first  winter  if  alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea  or  soy  bean  hay 
is  made  the  basis  of  the  ration.  Let  the  calves  have 
about  all  they  will  eat.  If  corn  silage  is  available, 
from  10  to  15  pounds  may  be  fed  daily.  If  there  is 
a  tendency  to  scour  under  this  feeding,  limit  the 
legume  hay  and  silage  and  introduce  a  few  pounds 
of  timothy,  prairie  hay  or  corn  stover.  Calves  fed 
in  this  manner  should  consume  from  10  to  13  pounds 
of  roughage  daily. 

As  for  grain,  nothing  is  better  than  corn,  and  par- 
ticularly so  if  a  legume  hay  is  fed.  From  two  to 
four  pounds  may  be  fed  each  day.  In  case  grass 
hays.,  corn  stover  and  corn  silage  must  be  used  for 
roughage,  some  protein  concentrate  will  be  neces- 
sary in  addition  to  corn.  For  this  purpose  linseed 
oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal  or  soy  bean  meal  may 
be  used.  A  pound  or  two  of  either,  mixed  with  the 
corn,  will  meet  the  requirements.  Oats  are  good, 
but  the  price  usually  is  against  them. 


FEEDING    BEEF    CATTLE 


209 


Finishing  Beeves  Under  18  Months. — When 
calves  are  to  be  finished  as  baby  beeves,  their  ration 
will  take  on  more  and  more  grain  concentrates  as 
winter  passes.  Corn  should  be  fed  in  liberal 
amounts,  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  the 
grain  portion  consisting  of  it.  In  case  legumes  are 


PRIME  STEERS 

On  many  farms  it  is  more  profitable  to  carry  the  steers  to  greater  age  than 
to  market  as  baby  beef.     This  is  a  bunch  of  prime  steers. 


largely  fed,  the  grain  portion  may  consist  largely 
of  corn,  with  enough  oil  meal  or  bran  to  give  a  safe 
supply  of  protein.  In  the  absence  of  alfalfa,  clover 
or  other  legume  hay,  one  of  the  oil  meals  should  be 
used  to  the  extent  of  20  per  cent  of  the  grain. 

The  ration  should  be  steadily  increased  to  meet 
the  steady  growth  and  weight  taken  on  during  the 


210 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


several  weeks  of  feeding.  By  spring  these  calves, 
now  yearlings,  should  weigh  from  800  to  1,000 
pounds  and  be  in  such  good  flesh  that  they  may  be 
marketed  in  a  very  short  time  after  being  put  on 
a  finishing  ration.  If  finished  at  once,  the  roughage 
will  be  decreased  and  concentrates  proportionally 


HERD  OF  ANGUS  IN  MIDDLE  WEST 

Beef  raising  has  long  been  popular  in  the  middle  west,  where  corn,  alfalfa, 
clover  and  other  beef-growing  crops  flourish  so  abundantly. 

increased,  but  consisting  of  the  same  or  similar  feed- 
ing stuffs  as  previously  fed. 

Baby  Beeves  Finished  on  Grass. — In  case  pasture 
is  abundant  the  grain  can  be  fed  less  heavily  dur- 
ing winter  and  the  finishing  of  the  calves  ended  a 
few  weeks  later  on  grass.  Less  grain  will  be  re- 
quired under  this  plan  during  the  winter.  On  grass, 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  211 

however,  an  ample  supply  of  grain  will  be  called 
for.  The  grain  ration  should  contain  15  to  20  per 
cent  of  oil  meal  or  cottonseed  meal  if  the  calves  are 
pastured  on  timothy,  prairie,  Bermuda  or  blue  grass. 
If  the  pasture  consists  of  mixed  grasses,  clover  and 
alfalfa,  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  concen- 
trates need  to  be  of  a  protein  nature.  Calves  fed  in 
this  manner  should  weigh  from  1 ,000  to  1,200 
pounds  and  be  ready  for  market  before  tormenting 
insects  and  hot  weather  come  to  annoy  them. 

BEEVES  FINISHED  AT  TWO  YEARS  OF 
AGE 

Objections  Against  Baby  Beef. — For  animals 
brought  up  to  marketable  stage  as  baby  beef,  con- 
tinuous grain  feeding  from  birth  to  the  end  is  neces- 
sary. Whether  this  is  best  is  still  an  unsettled  prob- 
lem, even  though  many  men  are  able  to  secure  good 
profits  by  following  the  plan.  The  method  has  its 
limitations.  While  adaptable  to  the  lines  of  farm- 
ing operated  on  certain  farms,  the  practice  of  car- 
rying cattle  along  until  in  the  range  at  two  years  of 
age  is  still  the  more  popular  practice.  Most  likely 
it  meets  the  conditions  of  the  average  farm  on  which 
beef  cattle  are  grown. 

In  the  first  place  the  steer  is,  by  nature,  a  good 
instrument  for  converting  large  amounts  of  coarse 
or  bulk  food  into  meat.  The  pig  is  not  able  to  do 
this.  Compared  with  the  pig,  the  baby  beef  steer 
renders  a  less  satisfactory  account  of  the  grain  it 
consumes.  For  this  reason  doubtless  this  pig  com- 


212  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

petitor  will  limit  the  extent  to  which  baby  beef  will 
be  produced. 

When  calves  are  fed  that  they  may  be  ready  for 
market  at  or  around  two  years  of  age,  their  first 
winter's  food  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  secure 
favorable  growth  and  to  keep  them  steadily  on  the 
gain.  The  manner  of  feeding  will  depend  on  the 
nature  of  the  roughage  foods,  as  has  been  discussed 
heretofore.  In  the  spring  these  calves  will  go  on 
grass,  and  if  the  pasture  is  good,  grain  will  ordina- 
rily not  be  fed.  If  hot,  dry  weather  cuts  short  the 
pasture,  light  grain  feeding  will  be  advisable.  The 
skillful  farmer  will  watch  these  matters  as  they 
arise  and  meet  them  in  accordance  with  his  best 
judgment,  which  will  be  influenced  very  largely  by 
the  amount,  kind,  and  market  value  of  the  grain  on 
hand,  and  the  cost  incidental  to  obtaining  a  supply 
of  commercial  feeds. 

During  the  second  winter  the  steers  will  be  fed 
on  hay,  stover,  and  silage  if  available,  and  grain. 
The  steers  should  be  allowed  to  eat  all  the  rough- 
age food  they  want.  If  alfalfa,  clover  or  other 
legume  hay  is  fed,  more  corn  in  the  grain  mixture 
may  be  used.  In  the  absence  of  a  legume  hay  then 
protein  concentrates  will  be  necessary.  From  two 
to  five  pounds  may  be  fed  daily  at  first.  The  nature 
of  the  hay,  the  character  of  the  cattle,  and  the  mar- 
ket price  of  feed,  must  all  be  considered  in  deciding 
the  kind  and  amount  of  each. 

Finishing  Two-Year-Olds  on  Grass. — In  feeding 
out  steers  that  have  passed  through  two  winters  and 
are  in  good  flesh  pastures  are  a  great  help.  During 


FEEDING    BEEF    CATTLE  213 

the  second  winter  grain  will  be  fed  rather  liberally. 
By  May  or  June  such  animals  ought  to  be  of  a  mar- 
ketable finish  if  turned  on  good  pasture  and  fed 
heavily  on  grain.  Corn  is  sufficient  on  alfalfa;  but, 
pastured  on  mixed  grasses,  at  least  10  per  cent  of 
the  grain  should  consist  of  oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal 
or  gluten  meal.  Steers  fed  in  this  way  should  gain 
two  pounds  on  the  grain  mixture. 


CATTLE  ON  ALFALFA 
With  corn  and  alfalfa  in  abundance  there  is  always  profit  in  cattle  raising. 

Summer  Feeding  on  Grass. — On  many  farms 
early  spring  pasturing  is  delayed  until  grass  has  at- 
tained a  fine  growth,  and  the  sod  has  become  dry 
enough  after  the  spring  rains  to  prevent  injury  from 
tramping.  During  this  period  the  steers  are  con- 
tinued in  the  feed  lot  and  fed  silage,  hay  and  grain 
in  amounts  liberal  enough  to  give  a  fair  rate  of  in- 
crease at  a  reasonable  cost.  The  steers  are  then  put 
on  pasture,  the  grain  increased  and  a  market  finish 
obtained  as  early  in  the  summer  as  possible. 


214 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


Care  will  need  to  be  exercised  in  changing  from 
dry  feed  to  grass;  otherwise  shrinkage  will  be  cer- 
tain to  follow.  The  steers  should  be  turned  on  the 
pasture  for  a  short  time  at  first,  gradually  lengthen- 
ing the  grazing  period  day  by  day.  In  this  manner 
they  will  become  accustomed  to  grass  and  the  risk 


FAMILIAR  SCENE  ON  THE  STOCK  FARM 

Cattle  take  their  grain  from  the  feed  box  and  the  pigs  gather  up  what 
falls  to  the  ground.  Usually  no  additional  food  is  given  the  pigs  other 
than  what  they  gather  from  the  waste  and  the  droppings. 

of  scours  will  be  minimized.  An  attack  of  scours 
will  do  much  harm ;  often  it  will  cause  a  loss  of  a 
month  or  more  in  the  steer's  growth. 

Fall  Feeding  on  Grass. — On  many  farms  the  older 
beeves  are  pastured  through  the  summer,  with  little 
or  considerable  grain,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  fin- 
ished on  new  corn.  The  corn  is  hauled  direct  from 


FEEDING   BEEF    CATTLE  215 

the  cornfield  to  the  pasture  and  is  fed  on  the  stalk. 
If  little  or  any  grain  has  been  given  previously,  only 
a  small  feed  at  first  is  hauled  out  to  them.  As 
rapidly  as  may  be  done  safely  the  corn  may  be  in- 
creased, until  in  a  month  or  six  weeks  the  steers  are 
on  full  feed.  From  now  on  they  may  refuse  much  of 
the  forage.  Where  this  forage  is  of  value,  snapped 
corn  should  be  substituted  for  half  of  the  ration. 

If  the  pasture  is  short,  at  the  beginning  of 
winter,  shocked  corn  may  be  used  for  roughage. 
When  the  pasture  is  no  longer  available,  protein 
feeds  must  be  used,  and  some  shelled  or  ground  corn 
used  in  connection  with  them.  Under  this  system 
of  feeding,  pigs  should  be  permitted  to  follow  the 
steers,  else  much  valuable  grain  will  be  wasted.  Not 
only  will  this  method  admit  of  steady  growth  of  the 
pigs,  but  these  animals  will  practically  grow  up  to 
marketable  finish,  thus  giving  a  double  chance  of 
profit  from  the  use  of  the  grain. 

FEEDING  FULL-GROWN  CATTLE 

Older  Steers  Are  Still  Marketed. — In  some  sec- 
tions cheap  lands  are  yet  the  rule  and  more  pasture 
is  available  than  could  be  used  economically  under 
the  tillage  system  utilized.  Under  these  circum- 
stances older  steers  are  preferred.  They  are  bought 
of  neighboring  farmers  at  all  ages  and  at  small  cost 
and  turned  on  pasture  where  they  are  forced  to  shift 
for  themselves.  So  placed  they  grow  slowly,  may 
or  may  not  keep  steadily  on  a  gain,  but  in  time  at- 
tain size  and  foundation  for  fattening. 


2l6 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


The  initial  cost  is,  of  course,  inconsiderable,  and 
the  outlay  for  feed  is  practically  nothing.  During 
favorable  seasons  pastures  may  be  good.  Then 
rapid  increase  will  follow  as  a  certainty.  Steers 
raised  in  this  manner  mature  slowly,  but  they  will 
not  have  cost  much.  Even  if  they  are  three  years 
old  or  more,  the  total  cost  will  be  at  such  a  low 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  IN   THE  OPEN 

It  used  to  be  thought  that  steers  were  most  profitably  fattened  when  stall 
fed.  It  has  been  found  that  they  do  even  better  if  cared  for  in  the  open. 
Many  feeders  prefer  open  sheds  for  feeding  during  inclement  weather. 

figure  that  some  profit  is  bound  to  result.  The  fin- 
ishing period,  preliminary  to  getting  ready  for 
slaughtering,  may  be  short  or  long.  It  will  depend 
somewhat  on  the  condition  of  the  animals  and  the 
state  of  the  market.  Given  the  run  of  a  good  pas- 
ture, and  supplied  corn  and  other  concentrates  for 
a  short  period,  a  reasonable  finish  and  often  highly 
satisfactory  money  results  are  to  be  expected. 


FEEDING    BEEF    CATTLE  217 

Often  steers  of  this  nature  are  carefully  and  pains- 
takingly fattened,  and  when  sold  bring  the  highest 
prices  that  the  market  pays. 

Fatten  the  Heifers  Early. — Heifer  calves  are  very 
good  for  baby  beef.  They  naturally  take  on  fat  and 
flesh,  and  if  brought  up  to  a  marketable  condition 
by  the  time  they  are  a  year  or  a  year  and  a  half 
old  they  will  fetch  as  good  prices  as  steers  of  the 
same  age.  By  turning  heifers  off  as  baby  beeves 
annoyance  from  the  period  of  heat  is  lessened. 
Otherwise,  unless  spayed,  heifers  will  fret  and  dis- 
turb the  rest  of  the  herd  periodically,  and  not  attain 
best  development  themselves.  It  follows  that  if 
many  such  heifers  are  in  a  herd  there  will  be  con- 
tinuous excitement  and  disturbance,  which  is  bad 
for  the  entire  bunch.  It  means  that  the  heifers  must 
be  separated  as  they  come  in  heat  if  the  trouble  is 
to  be  squarely  faced ;  but  it  is  a  fact  that  few  cattle 
men  do  this.  Ridding  the  herd  of  these  open  heifers 
at  an  early  age  as  baby  beeves  seems  to  be  a  sensi- 
ble and  wise  settlement  of  an  annoying  problem. 

PROMINENT  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Many  Kinds  of  Roughage  Foods. — Local  condi- 
tions will  have  much  to  do  in  the  choice  of  rough- 
age foods.  The  various  hay  crops,  corn  stover,  fod- 
der corn,  and  silage  are  all  valuable  at  certain 
periods  of  the  steer's  growth.  They  will  be  used  in 
scant  or  liberal  quantities,  in  accordance  with  the 
supply  and  the  general  style  of  farming.  Pastures 
either  of  a  temporary  or  a  permanent  nature  will  go 


218 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


hand  in  hand  with  the  forage  crops  grown  on  the 
farm.  The  aim  of  the  future  should  be  to  include 
the  legumes  more  and  more,  although  the  grass  hays 
and  the  products  of  the  corn  plant  will  always  oc- 
cupy an  important  place  in  the  food  supply  for  grow- 
ing and  fattening  cattle. 


CHAMPION  STEERS 

This    carload    of   steers    was    awarded    champion    honors    at    a    recent    live 
stock  show. 

It  is  not  so  much  what  kind  of  roughage  is  to  be 
used  as  it  is  that  there  be  an  abundance.  With  even 
inferior  roughage  it  is  possible  to  develop  cattle 
economically  if  good  pastures  are  available  and  pro- 
tein concentrates  in  reasonable  amount  are  fed.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  if  there  is  much  corn 
stover  there  is  also  much  ear  corn.  This  corn  can 
be  fed  or  exchanged  for  other  concentrates  that 
carry  large  quantities  of  protein,  to  assist  in  balanc- 


FEEDING   BEEF   CATTLE 


ing  the  stover  or  the  silage.  In  addition  to  this 
some  of  the  legumes  should  be  fed.  It  is  a  poor  sys- 
tem of  farming  that  will  not  admit  clover,  cowpeas 
and  soy  beans,  even  though  alfalfa  has  not  been 
successfully  grown 

The  roughage  materials  successfully  grown  in  a 
community  are  satisfactory  basic  foods  for  growing 
beef.  The  art  will  rest  with  their  employment  in 
feeding  rations  in  connection  with  other  balancing 
foods  to  give  the  right  balance.  Cattle  should  not 
simply  have  thrown  before  them  such  foods  as  are 
at  hand.  These  foods  should  be  so  prepared  and 
balanced  as  to  provide  the  necessary  food  nutrients 
in  the  proper  proportion  that  cattle  of  the  specific 
age  shall  demand. 

Leading  Grain  Foods.  —  Corn  is  first  in  the  list  of 
grain  products.  It  is  fed  in  many  forms  —  ground, 
shelled,  on  the  ear,  crushed  with  the  cob,  in  the 
shuck,  and  green  on  the  stalk.  So  universally  is  it 
grown  and  so  readily  adapted  is  it  to  practically  all 
sections  that  it  will  continue  to  be  the  chief  grain 
provided  in  most  rations  for  feeding  steers  for  beef. 
It  carries  much  starch  and  oil,  and  is  therefore 
largely  a  fattening  food.  It  stands  high  nevertheless 
as  a  growing  or  developing  food,  but  being  some- 
what lacking  in  protein,  it  is  not  and  should  not 
be  considered  an  exclusive  grain  for  growing  ani- 
mals. 

Fortunately  there  is  a  wide  choice  of  supplemen- 
tary concentrates  to  use  in  connection  with  corn. 
Chief  among  these  for  steers  are,  cottonseed  meal, 
linseed  oil  meal,  soy  bean  meal,  wheat  bran,  the 


220 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


glutens,  and  various  by-products  of  starch  and  cereal 
factories.  It  is  unnecessary  here  to  record  the  long 
list  of  grain  products  that  enter  into  the  production 
of  beef.  Some  are  local  feeds ;  some  are  prohibitive 
because  of  their  value  for  other  purposes ;  and  some, 
while  good  and  available,  are  ordinarily  outclassed 
as  fattening  foods  because  of  the  better  qualities 
and  larger  supply  of  such  grains  and  concentrates, 
as  previously  mentioned. 


TRACK  CONTRIVANCE  FOR  FEEDING  CATTLE 

The  grain  is  prepared  and  mixed  in  the  barn  and  later  delivered  by  means 
of  the  track  and  cars  to  the  feeding  pens.     In  this  way  much  labor  is  saved. 

Whether  grains  shall  be  ground,  crushed  or  fed 
whole,  or  whether  they  shall  be  fed  on  pasture  or 
in  the  feed  lot,  in  outside  racks  or  in  closed  stalls, 
will  depend  upon  circumstances,  the  management 
of  the  farm  and  the  nature  of  the  man.  What  is 
most  important  of  all  is  to  grow  as  much  corn  as 
can  be  profitably  grown ;  to  grow  as  much  roughage 
as  the  method  of  farming  will  admit,  and  to  have 
as  much  of  this  of  a  legume  nature  as  possible;  to 


FEEDING   BEEF    CATTLE  221 

use  home-grown  corn  to  feed  in  connection  with  this 
roughage ;  and,  finally,  to  supplement  roughage  and 
corn  with  other  concentrates  purchased  outright  or 
secured  in  exchange  for  corn  and  fed  in  such  ways 
as  will  give  balanced  rations  to  meet  the  ever- 
changing  needs  of  the  steers  under  feed. 

SOME  SAMPLE  RATIONS 
Maintenance  Ration  for  Breeding  Cows. 

The  following  rations  are  for  cows  during  the  win- 
ter and  without  calves : 

1.  Corn  silage,  20  pounds;  clover  hay,  3  pounds; 

oat  straw,  10  pounds. 

2.  Shock  corn,  8  pounds ;  clover  hay,  3  pounds ; 

oat  straw,  10  pounds. 

3.  Shredded  stover,    10    pounds;    clover    hay,    5 

pounds. 

Winter  Yearlings  With  and  Without  Grain. 

1.  Corn  silage,  15  pounds;  clover  hay,  15  pounds. 

2.  Clover  hay,  10  pounds ;  corn  stover,  10  pounds ; 

corn,  3  pounds. 

3.  Timothy  hay,  8  pounds ;  clover  hay,  8  pounds ; 

corn,  3  pounds. 

4.  Alfalfa  hay,  10  pounds ;  corn,  5  pounds. 

5.  Cowpea  hay,  10  pounds ;  corn,  5  pounds. 

6.  Clover  hay,  14  pounds;  corn,  3  pounds. 

7.  Alfalfa,  7  pounds ;  corn  stover,  6  pounds ;  corn, 

3  pounds. 


222  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Rations  for  Fattening  Steers. 

1.  Shelled  corn,  21  pounds;    cottonseed    meal,   2 

pounds;  clover  hay,  4  pounds;  corn  silage,  15 
pounds. 

2.  Corn,  22  pounds;  alfalfa  hay,  5  pounds;  corn 

stover,  5  pounds. 

3.  Corn,  14  pounds;  alfalfa  hay,  10  pounds;  corn 

stover,  7  pounds. 

4.  Ear  corn,   20  pounds;  gluten   or  oil   meal,   3 

pounds ;  clover  hay,  8  pounds. 

5.  Ear  corn,  13  pounds;  oil  meal,  2  pounds;  shock 

corn,  15  pounds;  clover  hay,  7  pounds. 

6.  Kafir    corn,     15    pounds;    cottonseed    meal,    3 

pounds;  cottonseed  hulls,  13  pounds. 

7.  Corn,  15  pounds;  cottonseed  meal,  3  pounds; 

mixed  hay,  10  pounds. 

8.  Cottonseed  hulls,  25  pounds;  cottonseed  meal, 

6%  pounds. 

9.  Alfalfa  hay,  9  pounds  ;  corn,  18  pounds. 

10.  Corn  silage,  24  pounds;  mixed  hay,  5  pounds; 

shelled  corn,  15  pounds;  cottonseed  meal,  2 
pounds. 

11.  Corn    silage,    30    pounds;    shelled    corn,     16 

pounds ;  cottonseed  meal,  3  pounds. 

12.  Cassava,  35  pounds;  peavine  hay,  10  pounds; 

cottonseed  meal,  4  pounds. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
FEEDING  SHEEP 

Food  Requirements  for  Sheep. — The  Wolff-Leh- 
mann  standards  for  feeding  the  various  classes  of 
sheep  are  shown  in  the  table  below.  They  indicate 
the  amount  of  food  required  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  for  both  wool  and  mutton,  and  for  growing, 
mature  and  fattening  sheep. 

WOLFF-LEHMANN  STANDARDS  FOR  FEEDING  SHEEP 


Kind   of    sheep 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Pat 

Growing1 

sheep 

Wool  breeds 

Age  in 

months 

Weight 

4  to    6 

60 

25 

3.4 

15.4 

0.7 

1:5.0 

6  to    8 

75 

25 

2.8 

13.8 

0.6 

1:5.4 

8  to  11 

80 

23 

2.1 

11.5 

0.5 

1:6.0 

11  to  15 

90 

22 

1.8 

11.2 

0.4 

1:7.0 

15  to  20 

100 

22 

1.5 

10.8 

0.3 

1:7.7 

Growing 

sheep 

Mutton 

breeds 

4  to    6 

60 

26 

4.4 

15.5 

0.9 

1:4.0 

6  to    8 

80 

26 

3.5 

15.0 

0.7 

1:4.8 

8  to  11 

100 

24 

3.0 

14.3 

0.5 

1:5.2 

11  to  15 

120 

23 

2.  2 

12.6 

0.5 

1:6.3 

15  to  20 

150 

22 

2.0 

12.0 

0.4 

1:6.5 

Mature  sheen 

Coarse 

wool  . 

20 

1.2 

10.5 

0.2 

1:9.1 

Fine    wool    .  .  . 

23 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

1:8.5 

Breeding 

ewes 

AVith     l£ 

imbs    . 

25 

2.9 

15.0 

0.5 

1:5.6 

Fattening  sheep 
First  period  .  . 

30 

3.0 

15.0 

0.5 

1:5.4 

Second 

period 

28 

3.5 

14.5 

0.6 

1:4.5 

FEEDING   SHEEP  225 

Wool  and  Mutton. — The  food  consumed  by  sheep 
is  used  for  both  flesh  and  wool.  Hence,  these  ani- 
mals have  a  double  requirement  to  meet.  Wool  con- 
tains much  nitrogen,  and  a  slightly  more  liberal 
supply  of  protein  is  demanded  than  for  either  swine 
or  beeves.  Sheep,  too,  are  very  active  creatures; 
their  body  surface  is  proportionately  greater  than 
that  of  beeves.  Because  of  this  they  require  more 
food,  proportionately. 

The  larger  breeds  of  sheep  require  about  one 
pound  of  digestible  protein  to  eight  pounds  of  starch 
equivalent,  the  smaller  breeds  slightly  more.  The 
wool  growth  becomes  less  active  as  the  food  supply 
is  reduced,  but  if  more  food  is  given  than  the  ani- 
mal has  use  for,  the  rate  of  wool  growth  will  not  be 
increased. 

Relative  Economy  of  Sheep,  Steers  and  Pigs. — 
Compared  with  swine,  the  sheep  does  not  render 
quite  as  good  an  account  of  its  food  as  does  the  pig ; 
in  fact,  it  requires  nearly  twice  as  much  digestible 
organic  matter  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain. 
While  this  is  true,  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  much 
of  the  sheep's  provender  is  in  the  form  of  hay  or 
other  roughage  and  of  a  nature  that  the  pig  could 
not  use.  Pigs  demand  easily  digested  food,  and  that 
largely  in  the  form  of  grain.  From  the  point  of 
profit,  therefore,  the  sheep  is  not  at  a  disadvantage 
at  all. 

Compared  with  steers,  sheep  have  slightly  the 
better  of  it.  Nearly  50  years  ago  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert determined  that,  covering  a  whole  fattening 
period,  a  steer,  to  produce  100  pounds  of  increase, 


226 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


requires  3,500  pounds  of  swedes,  600  pounds  of 
clover  hay  and  250  pounds  of  oil  meal.  To  produce 
the  same  increase  these  investigators  found  that 
sheep  require  4,000  pounds  of  swedes,  300  pounds 
of  clover  hay  and  250  pounds  of  oil  meal.  The  ad- 
vantage as  between  steers  and  sheep  was  slightly 
with  the  latter. 

Wide  Variety  of  Feed  for  Sheep.— The  variety  of 


SHEEP  RANGE  IN  THE  NORTHWEST 

foods  suitable  for  feeding  sheep  is  extensive.  Hay, 
straw,  corn  stover,  roots  of  various  kinds,  corn,  oats, 
peas,  rye,  buckwheat,  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  oil 
meal,  and  bran  furnish  a  variety  from  which  a 
proper  choice  can  readily  be  made.  The  relative 
feeding  values  of  these  various  substances  used  as 
food  will  determine  the  relative  money  values,  and 
as  these  differ  and  fluctuate  from  time  to  time,  it  is 


FEEDING   SHEEP  227 

often  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  the  most  profit 
on  the  feeding,  to  choose  the  food  that  is  most 
economical  to  use,  although  it  may  be  the  highest 
in  price.  Cottonseed  meal,  while  one  of  the  highest 
priced  concentrates  on  the  market,  is  at  the  same 
time  a  heavy  carrier  of  protein,  and  when  a  rough- 
age material  like  corn  stover  or  timothy  hay  is  fed, 
cottonseed  meal  is  really  a  cheaper  food  than  corn 
at  a  much  less  cost.  It  is  not  only  advisable,  but 
very  profitable,  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  this  grain 
than  for  other  less  heavy  protein  carriers,  even  at 
prices  considerably  less. 

The  two  most  valuable  feeds  for  winter  use  are 
clover  and  alfalfa.  Cut  when  in  blossom,  cured  so 
as  to  preserve  all  good  qualities  and  kept  from  damp 
and  mold,  each  of  these  is  a  good  basic  food  for  all 
feeding  purposes,  and  where  a  maintenance  diet  is 
desired  each  will  practically  meet  the  requirements 
without  any  additional  supply.  Well-cured  pea 
straw  comes  third  in  the  list,  and  is  liked  by  sheep 
better  than  either  timothy  or  any  other  grass  or 
cereal  hay. 

Oat  hay,  if  cut  when  the  grains  are  in  the  milk 
stage,  is  much  liked  and  is  an  admirable  feed  for 
sheep.  Fodder  corn  is  greedily  eaten,  blades,  husks 
and  ears,  the  hard  stalks  only  being  rejected.  When 
fodder  corn  is  fed,  some  protein  food  like  oil  meal, 
bran,  pea  meal,  or  a  mixture  should  be  fed  in  addi- 
tion. 

Choosing  the  Feed. — While  there  is  wide  choice 
as  to  the  variety  of  food,  those  foods  that  furnish 
abundant  flesh  should  be  chosen  for  the  grow- 


228  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

ing  classes,  and  those  rich  in  starch  and  oil  selected 
for  fattening.  The  protein  supply  should  be  suffi- 
cient, else  the  body  will  not  be  properly  supported, 
wool  growth  will  be  checked,  and  the  readiest  digestion 
of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  will  not  be  secured. 
This  last  point  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  in  feed- 
ing any  class  of  live  stock. 

Much  may  be  gained  by  varying  or  mixing  the 
food  so  as  to  stimulate  the  appetite.  A  healthy  sheep 
will  increase  in  weight  in  proportion  to  the  food 
consumed  only  as  long  as  digestion  and  assimilation 
are  of  a  high  order.  If  a  sheep  can  be  made  to  in- 
crease its  diet  by  the  addition  of  roots  or  appetizing 
concentrates,  a  manifest  advantage  is  gained. 

Roots  Always  Fine  for  Sheep. — Roots,  a  staple 
food,  are  of  the  greatest  value  in  winter  feeding 
of  sheep.  When  fed  in  proper  quantities,  their  laxa- 
tive effect  healthfully  opposes  the  tendency  of  dry 
straw  or  hay  to  produce  costiveness.  If  fed  in  ex- 
cess, the  quantity  of  water  they  contain  and  their 
large  bulk,  especially  when  used  in  winter,  reduce 
the  temperature  of  the  animal  considerably  and 
gradually  act  unfavorably  on  the  health.  Watery 
foods  are  not  good  for  sheep.  Sheep  need  succu- 
lence, but  roots  and  green  crops  should  be  consid- 
ered as  supplements  only,  and  not  as  the  basic  por- 
tions of  the  ration. 

The  roots  most  commonly  fed  are  sugar  beets, 
mangels,  rutabagas  and  turnips.  Each  kind  is  fav- 
orable in  effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  wool.  The 
quantity  of  roots  to  be  given  will  depend  on  the 
kind  of  sheep.  As  a  safe  guide,  it  may  be  stated 


FEEDING   SHEEP 


229 


that  one  bushel  of  roots  will  be  sufficient  as  a  daily 
allowance  for  10  sheep  weighing  150  pounds  each, 
if  along  with  the  roots  i^  pounds  of  hay  and  y2 
pound  of  meal  or  bran  are  given  daily  to  each  animal. 
Sheep  Require  Water. — During  the  summer  sheep 
frequently  are  put  on  pastures  where  water  is  not 
available.  While  they  may  be  able  to  subsist  under 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES  BEST  FOR  SHEEP 

If  grazed  over  the  same  land  year  after  year  the  pastures  become  infested 
with  parasites.  On  permanent  pastures  sheep  should  be  changed  frequently. 
Temporary  pastures  of  timothy  and  clover  provide  rich  forage  and  the 
constant  turning  of  the  land  by  the  plow  keeps  the  parasites  in  check. 

these  conditions  they  often  suffer,  and  even  perish, 
from  lack  of  water.  So  long  as  heavy  dews  gather 
on  the  grass  considerable  water  is  taken  into  the 
system  and  its  demand  is  in  this  way  met,  but  in  the 
hot  summer,  when  dews  are  infrequent  or  totally 
lacking  and  pastures  are  dry,  there  is  a  decided  need 
for  water.  This  must  be  provided  if  satisfactory 


230  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

growth  is  to  be  secured.  It  is  an  old  fallacy  that 
sheep  do  not  need  water. 

When  Turning  to  Pasture. — Change  from  dry 
forage  to  fresh  pasture  gradually.  An  afternoon  is 
best  when  no  moisture  is  on  the  grass.  After  feed- 
ing on  this  pasture  for  a  short  time  return  the  flock 
to  the  yard.  Repeat  in  this  manner  for  a  few  days, 
and  little  if  any  digestive  disturbances  will  arise. 
After  four  or  five  days  the  sheep  will  become  accus- 
tomed to  green  feed. 

Proportion  of  Grain  to  Roughage. — Practical 
feeders  have  found  no  definite  rule  to  use  in  this 
matter.  If  grain  is  abundant  and  hay  scarce,  more 
grain  is  fed  than  when  the  opposite  condition  ob- 
tains. For  economical  gains  the  roughage  material 
will  be  fed  in  as  large  quantities  as  the  animals  may 
be  induced  to  eat.  Some  grain,  however,  is  neces- 
sary. The  amount  will  vary  from  il/>  to  2  pounds 
of  roughage  to  one  pound  of  grain.  Under  average 
feeding  conditions  about  300  pounds  of  grain  and 
500  pounds  of  roughage  will  be  required  to  give 
100  pounds  of  increase.  If  on  blue  grass  or  rape 
pasture,  about  175  pounds  of  corn  should  secure  100 
pounds  of  gain. 

How  Often  to  Feed  Sheep. — Usually  sheep,  when 
being  fattened,  are  fed  twice  each  day.  Slightly  bet- 
ter returns  have  been  observed  when  three  feeds  are 
provided.  The  gain  is  not  large,  but  it  is  frequently 
sufficient  to  meet  more  than  the  cost  in  labor  and 
trouble. 

Feeding  Corn  in  the  Field. — When  sheep  are  at 
pasture  ear  corn  may  be  scattered  about,  two  or 


FEEDING  SHEEP  2$I 

three  bushels  each  day  to  each  100  sheep  in  the  flock. 
The  corn  should  be  thinly  scattered,  and  fed  half  in 
the  morning  and  half  at  night.  This  practice  may 
be  followed  during  any  season  of  the  year. 

Rape  an  Excellent  Sheep  Feed. — This  splendid 
forage  crop  combines  well  with  corn.  Where  corn 
in  the  field  is  fed  off,  it  is  desirable  that  rape  be 
seeded  in  the  field  at  the  last  cultivation.  Ordina- 
rily, the  sheep  will  blend  the  two  feeds,  consuming 


SHEEP  ON  RAPE  PASTURE 

both  corn  and  rape.  If  rape  is  seeded  separately  and 
sheep  turned  on  it  to  graze,  the  addition  of  one  to 
two  bushels  of  corn  a  head  during  the  fattening 
period  of  100  days  is  to  be  commended. 

Roughage  Feeds. — Pasture  is  entitled  to  the  first 
place  of  good  roughage  feeds.  It  may  consist  of 
alfalfa,  clover,  mixed  grasses,  or  blue  grass.  After 
these  come  the  roots  and  rape.  Each  has  its  place. 
Cured  as  hay,  naturally  alfalfa  and  clover  fall  in  the 


232  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

first  rank,  and  are  always  to  be  preferred  for  lamb 
feeding,  fattening  ewes  or  wethers,  or  during  the 
lambing  season.  In  their  absence  the  mixed  hays 
may  be  used,  but  heavier  grain  feeding  will  be  neces- 
sary, particularly  at  lambing  time. 

Temporary  Fences  by  Means  of  Hurdles. — In 
grazing  forage  crops  like  peas  and  rape,  temporary 
fences  in  the  form  of  hurdles  may  be  used.  These 
hurdles  are  moved  forward  every  few  days,  provid- 
ing in  this  way  a  strip  of  fresh  pasture.  Otherwise, 
if  given  the  run  of  a  field,  much  forage  will  be  de- 
stroyed and  soiled  by  tramping.  Move  the  hurdles 
before  the  eaten-over  portion  has  been  cleaned  up. 

Putting  Sheep  on  Full  Grain  Rations. — If  grain 
has  been  fed  while  sheep  are  at  pasture,  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  change  from  pasture  to  yard  and  put 
on  fattening  rations.  Beginning  with  a  fourth  of  a 
pound  of  grain  daily,  the  amount  may  gradually  be 
increased  by  a  fourth  of  a  pound  the  second  week, 
and  so  on.  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  week  the  ani- 
mals should  be  cleaning  up  a  pound  or  more  of  grain 
each  day.  By  the  end  of  two  months  a  daily  allow- 
ance of  i  y*  or  2  pounds  may  be  fed.  It  is  seldom 
advisable  to  feed  more  than  two  pounds  of  grain  a 
head  daily.  The  good  shepherd  watches  his  sheep 
and  observes  the  first  indication  of  bad  appetite. 
When  noticed,  he  corrects  the  trouble  at  once. 

Green  Crops  for  Roughage. — Sheep  are  most  at 
home  in  pasture  fields.  They  feed  not  only  on  the 
tender  grass  blades,  but  they  strip  weeds  and  other 
foul  plants  of  their  leaves  and  branches.  They  are 
in  truth  the  plant  scavengers  of  the  farm.  But  kept 


FEEDING   SHEEP  233 

on  the  same  land  in  the  same  field  year  after  year 
without  change  the  pastures  become  foul,  disease 
lurks  in  the  soil  and  dangerous  parasites  accumu- 
late. For  these  reasons  sheep  should  be  changed 
frequently  from  field  to  field,  from  year  to  year,  and 
except  in  the  case  of  well-established  permanent 
pastures,  crop  rotation  should  be  followed  so  the 
fields  may  be  clean  of  disease  or  parasites  and  may 
be  ever  fresh  with  new-growing  grass  crops. 

Over  a  good  part  of  the  country  timothy  and 
clover,  with  red  top  and  alsike  or  white  clover  occa- 
sionally mixed,  comprise  much  of  the  pasture  land. 
The  prairie  grasses  of  the  west  and  Bermuda  grass 
of  the  south  take  care  of  the  local  needs  in  these 
parts  of  the  country.  Blue  grass  is  the  stand-by  of 
the  old  grazing  sections ;  in  addition  to  it  other 
crops  may  find  place  and  may  be  profitably  grown. 
Rye  seeded  in  August  makes  a  fairly  good  pasture 
for  lambs  and  old  sheep  in  the  fall.  It  will  furnish 
excellent  grazing  in  the  spring  before  the  clovers, 
alfalfa  and  blue  grass  are  available. 

Some  of  the  Best  Grains. — Corn  stands  first  be- 
cause it  is  so  universally  grown.  It  is  well  liked  by 
sheep  and  makes  profitable  gains.  It  may  be  fed 
in  the  husk,  on  the  stalk,  in  the  feed  rack,  in  the  field, 
crushed,  ground  or  shelled.  Some  feeders  dislike 
to  use  corn  when  finely  ground,  because  sheep  eat  it 
too  greedily.  Ear  corn  is  satisfactory  for  winter 
yearlings  and  ewes. 

Oats  are  fed  to  some  extent,  but  they  should  be 
ground  or  crushed.  They  make  excellent  feed  for 
either  lambs,  or  ewes  in  milk.  Compared  with  many 


234  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

other  feeding  stuffs  oats  are  rather  expensive,  and 
for  this  reason  they  often  give  way  to  linseed  oil 
meal,  cottonseed  meal,  soy  beans,  and  wheat  bran. 
Wheat  bran,  being  bulky,  is  splendid  to  use  in  a 
mixture  with  the  oil  meals. 

Wheat  screenings,  where  available,  give  good  re- 
turns. Not  many  years  back  screenings  were  a 
principal  part  of  fattening  rations.  This  food  prod- 
uct has  been  very  largely  taken  over  by  stock  food 
and  commercial  food  factories,  thus  leaving  only  a 
small  amount  for  sheep  feeding.  Screenings  are 


OUT  AT  PASTURE 

The  sheep   have  been  kept   thrifty  by  wise   feeding   and  careful   attention. 
Both  ewes  and  lambs  are  together. 

ground  and  mixed  with  various  weed  seeds  and 
other  by-products  of  the  cereal  food  factories.  The 
price  at  which  these  foods  are  sold  is  high  and  usu- 
ally out  of  proportion  to  the  price  that  sheep  bring 
in  the  market. 

With  the  breaking  up  of  large  flocks,  sheep  will 
be  raised  more  and  more  in  small  flocks  on  small 
farms  of  50  to  100  acres.  On  such  farms  they  will 
have  the  run  of  the  temporary  pastures,  will  be  fed 


FEEDING   SHEEP  235 

the  hay  crops  ordinarily  raised  on  the  farm,  will  be 
supplied  to  some  extent  with  silage,  and  fattened  on 
rape,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  corn,  oil  meal  and  cotton- 
seed meal  and  the  ordinary  roughage  materials  cus- 
tomarily grown  on  each  farm. 

Feeding  Lambs  for  Market. — For  most  markets 
the  feeding  process  begins  late  in  the  fall  or  the  early 
winter.  In  addition  to  late  fall  pasture,  such  as  rye, 
rape,  new  growth  of  blue  grass,  young  clover  or  al- 


READY  FOR  MARKET 
Their  ration  consisted  of  clover  hay,  oil  meal,  ground  oats,  and  corn. 

falfa,  lambs  will  have  been  using  in  many  instances 
leguminous  hays  or  other  dry  fodder,  so  that  by  the 
time  they  are  actually  confined  in  close  feeding  pens 
and  placed  upon  a  fattening  ration  their  digestive 
systems  will  have  become  accustomed  to  dry  feed. 
So  handled  they  will  be  in  condition  to  use  econom- 
ically large  amounts  of  forage  and  grain,  and  should 
gain  from  the  first  week  after  being  placed  in  con- 
finement. 


236  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Roots  and  succulent  feeds  are  not  essential  in 
successful  lamb  feeding.  Experiments  indicate  that 
under  some  conditions  these  feeds  may  be  detrimen- 
tal to  the  most  economical  gains.  It  is  a  mooted 
question  and  will  have  to  be  worked  out  by  every 
feeder.  A  well-balanced  ration  consisting  of  hay 
and  grain,  plenty  of  water,  regular  feeding  and  com- 
fortable quarters  are  the  factors  that  produce  nearly 
all  the  fat  lambs.  Alfalfa  is  beyond  question  the 
best  forage,  but  in  its  absence  clover,  cowpeas  or 
other  leguminous  forage  is  a  good  substitute  and 
practically  indispensable.  If  such  forage  is  not  at 
hand,  then  sugar  cane,  kafir  corn,  millet  or  mixed 
hay,  cut  at  the  proper  period  and  carefully  cured, 
will  give  good  gains,  although  more  grain  will  be 
necessary. 

The  grain  ration  will  consist  largely  of  corn. 
Cracked  corn  is  usually  preferred  to  whole  corn. 
Small  amounts  of  oil  meal,  ground  oats,  or  both, 
may  be  introduced  into  the  ration  with  good  effect ; 
if  a  leguminous  hay  is  not  used,  one  of  them  should 
certainly  be  added.  Lambs  should  weigh  about  60 
pounds  when  placed  in  the  feed  lot.  After  a  feed- 
ing period  of  60  to  90  days  they  should  weigh  from 
90  to  95  pounds.  Often  heavier  weights  than  these 
are  obtained,  but  when  a  lamb  weighs  more  than 
loo  pounds  he  is  likely  to  be  discriminated  against 
by  buyers  and  may  possibly  have  to  be  sold  for  a 
sheep  instead  of  a  lamb,  at  a  lower  price. 

Fattening  Grown  Sheep. — The  feeding  of  wethers 
or  grown  ewes  for  market  does  not  differ  much  from 
the  method  employed  in  fattening  lambs.  On  some 


FEEDING    SHEEP  237 

farms  lambs  are  held  over  a  season  to  utilize 
plentiful  pasture  and  to  secure  one  or  two  wool 
clips.  Such  sheep  also  weigh  more  at  market  time, 
although  they  bring  a  smaller  price  per  pound. 
These  older  sheep,  kept  on  good  pasture  throughout 
the  summer  and  placed  in  the  feed  lot  in  winter, 
usually  make  excellent  use  of  grain  and  hay.  They 
may  be  marketed  during  late  winter  or  early  spring. 


POOR  WAY  TO  FEED  SHEEP 

On  many  farms  corn  is  fed  to  sheep  on  the  ear  and  stalk.  This  is  a 
disappearing  custom.  When  so  fed  a  clean  pasture  is  the  best  place  to 
scatter  the  feed.  Even  then  a  large  amount  of  fodder  is  wasted,  for  sheep 
will  not  eat  what  has  once  been  run  over. 

Concentrated  feeds  are  essential.  They  should  be 
used  m  connection  with  bright,  clean  leguminous 
hays  and  so  mixed  with  the  hay  as  to  give  a  well- 
balanced  ration.  Corn,  bran,  ground  oats,  oil  meal 
and  cottonseed  meal,  are  all  excellent/  During  early 
winter,  corn  silage  and  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  may  be 
fed  exclusively.  In  other  cases  fodder  corn  and 


238  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

mixed  hay  may  be  used  for  roughage,  with  wheat 
bran  and  corn  for  grain,  about  ^2  pound  of  a  mixture 
of  corn  and  bran  being  given  daily  to  each  animal. 
As  they  plump  up,  the  grain  may  be  increased  grad- 
ually, until  it  reaches  as  much  as  two  or  even  three 
pounds  a  day. 

Where  alfalfa  or  clover  is  used,  a  {found  of  corn 
daily  will  be  satisfactory.  If  alfalfa  or  clover  is 
freely  used  and  corn  is  relatively  low  in  price  and 
hay  high,  then  cut  down  the  allotment  of  hay  and 
feed  one  or  two  pounds  of  corn  daily.  Where  some 
grass  hay  or  corn  stover,  shredded  or  unshredded, 
is  the  only  source  of  roughage,  bran  and  one  of  the 
oil  meals  should  be  used  in  addition  to  the  corn.  If 
fed  throughout  the  winter  in  this  manner,  a  heavy 
wool  clip  may  be  secured  the  following  spring  before 
the  animals  are  marketed.  Thus  satisfactory  profits 
will  ordinarily  be  secured. 

SOME  SAMPLE  RATIONS 

For  Lambs  Weighing  50  to  60  Pounds. 

The  following  rations,  in  common  use,  secure  sat- 
isfactory gains.  The  amount  of  feed  here  sug- 
gested is  for  flocks  of  50  and  the  daily  allow- 
ance for  all : 

1.  Mixed  hay,  50  pounds;  roots,  50  pounds;  corn, 

45  pounds ;  oats,  6  pounds. 

2.  Mixed  hay,  50  pounds ;  roots,  50  pounds ;  bran, 

25  pounds;  linseed  meal,  20  pounds;  cotton- 
seed meal,  15  pounds. 

3.  Cottonseed  hulls,  60  pounds;  cottonseed  meal, 

40  pounds. 


FEEDING    SHEEP  239 

For  Lambs  Weighing  60  to  80  Pounds. 

In  flocks  of  50  and  daily  allowance. 

1.  Corn,  75  pounds  shelled;  clover  hay,  50  pounds. 

2.  Corn,   40   pounds,    shelled ;   bran,   40   pounds ; 

clover  hay,  50  pounds. 

3.  Oil  meal,  15  pounds;  corn,  65  pounds;  clover 

hay,  50  pounds. 

4.  Alfalfa  hay,  125  pounds;  corn,  35  pounds. 

For  Lambs  Weighing  80  to  100  Pounds. 

In  flocks  of  50  and  daily  allowance. 

1.  Pasture  and  40  pounds  of  corn. 

2.  Pasture  and  35  pounds  of  oats. 

3.  Clover  hay,  85  pounds ;  corn,  45  pounds  ;  gluten, 

20  pounds ;  bran,  10  pounds. 

4.  Clover  hay,  85  pounds;  bran,  10  pounds;  soy 

beans,  65  pounds. 

For  Sheep  in  Winter. 

1.  Corn  silage  and  alfalfa  or  clover  hay. 

2.  Roots,   5   bushels ;   hay,   75   pounds ;   meal   or 

bran — use  25  pounds  for  a  flock  of  50  sheep. 

3.  Fodder  corn,  mixed  hay  and  wheat  bran  and 

corn,  with  not   more   than   a   half  pound  of 
grain  per  animal. 

Sheep  on  Full  Feed. 

1.  From  a  quarter  to  a  half  pound  of  clover  hay 

and  from  2^/2  to  3^  pounds    of   grain    each 
daily. 

2.  Alfalfa,  2  pounds,  and  ^  of  a  pound  of  corn 

each  daily. 


240  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

3.  Hay,  1%  pounds,  and  corn  I  to  3  pounds  each 

daily. 

4.  Free  use  of  alfalfa  or  clover  and  I  pound  of 

corn  daily  when  grain  is  costly  and  hay  rela- 
tively cheap.  If  the  reverse,  limit  the  hay 
and  feed  from  I  to  2  pounds  of  corn  daily. 

For  Ewes  with  Lambs  at  Side. 

1.  Corn  silage,  4  pounds;  mangels  or  other  roots, 

i  pound;  and  il/2  pounds  of  mixed  grain,  con- 
sisting of  a  mixture  of  100  pounds  of  bran, 
30  pounds  of  ground  oats,  45  pounds  of 
cracked  oil  cake,  and  25  pounds  of  corn. 

2.  Alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  2  pounds ;  corn,  I  pound ; 

hay  or  oil  meal,  0.5  pound. 


CHAPTER  XX 


FEEDING  SWINE 

Food  Requirements  for  Swine. — The  Wolff-Leh- 
mann  standards  for  feeding  the  various  classes  of 
swine  are  shown  in  the  table  below.  They  indicate 
the  amount  of  food  required  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  and  are  for  growing  pigs,  brood  sows  and 
fattening  hogs. 

WOLFF-LEHMANN   STANDARDS   FOR  FEEDING  SWINE 


Growing  swine 

Breeding 

Digestible  nutrients 

Age  in 
months 

Weight 

Dry 
matter 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Nutritive 
ratio 

2  to    3 

50 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

1:4.0 

3  to    5 

100 

35 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

1:5.0 

5  to    6 

120 

32 

3.7 

21.3 

0.4 

1:6.0 

6  to    8 

200 

28 

2.8 

18.7 

0.3 

1:7.0 

8  to  12 

250 

25 

2.1 

15.3 

0.2 

1:7.5 

Growing   swine 

Fattening 

2  to    3 

,        50 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

1:4.0 

3  to    5 

100 

35 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

1:5.0 

!i  to    6 

150 

33 

4.3 

22.3 

0.6 

1:5.5 

6  to    8 

200 

30 

3.6 

20.5 

0.4 

1:6.0 

8  to  12 

300 

26 

3.0 

18.3 

0.3 

1:6.4 

Brood  sows   .... 

22 

2.5 

15.5 

0.4 

1:6.6 

Fattening    swine 

First  period  .  . 
Second  period. 

36 
32 

4.5 
4.0 

25.0 
24.0 

0.7 
0.5 

1:5.9 
1:6.3 

Third  period.  . 

25 

2.7 

18.0 

0.4 

1:7.0 

Hogs  Consume  Much  and  Give  Generous  Returns. 

The  hog  is  at  home  with  poor  and  rich;  he  works 


241 


FEEDING   SWINE  243 

energetically  for  both.  Whether  inclosed  in  muddy 
pens  or  given  the  range  of  wide  acres,  he  neither 
frets  nor  pines.  He  grows  the  best  he  can,  increases 
his  size  as  rapidly  as  his  food  supply  admits,  and  in- 
variably pays  his  way.  As  a  consumer  of  food  he 
eats  greedily  and  heartily,  but  the  account  he  fur- 
nishes is  honest.  He  is  waste- 
ful of  what  he  eats  only  when 
he  is  denied  what  he  wants  and 
in  generous  quantities ;  but,  fed 
abundantly,  he  grows  fat,  ma- 
tures rapidly,  and  manufac- 
tures meat  and  lard  economi- 
cally. 

The  fact  is,  when  compared 
with  other  meat  producers,  the 
hog  consumes  less  food  for 

what  he  gives  than  any  other  meat-making  animal.  He 
works  faster.  It  is  due  in  part  to  his  digestive  appa- 
ratus, to  the  kind  of  food  he  relishes,  and  to  the  fact 
that  he  uses  less  food  than  the  other  animals  for 
work  and  body  heat.  On  the  basis  of  1,000  pounds 
live  weight  the  hog  uses  about  275  pounds  of  dry 
food  to  160  for  the  sheep  and  125  for  steers  a  week. 
Of  this  he  will  digest  230  pounds,  while  the  sheep 
will  digest  but  120  pounds  and  the  steer  but  88 
pounds. 

To  produce  100  pounds  of  increase  the  steer  will 
consume  1,100  pounds  of  dry  food,  the  sheep  910  and 
the  hog  4_o.  The  increase  in  live  weight  for  food 
consumed,  on  the  basis  of  one  point  for  steers,  will 
be  1.5  for  sheep  and  5.8  for  hogs.  From  this  it  is 


244  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

clear  that  in  proportion  to  its  weight  the  sheep  eats 
more  food  than  the  steer  and  yields  a  greater  in- 
crease in  consequence ;  but  the  pig,  by  eating  more 
heartily,  consumes  more  food  and  yields  more  meat 
or  increase  than  either. 

Fastest  Gains  Are  Made  During  Early  Growth. — 
It  used  to  be  that  hogs  were  kept  as  stockers  on 
grass  until  they  had  reached  a  year  or  two  in  age, 
and  then  be  fed  until  they  weighed  from  300  to  500 
pounds.  When  slaughtered  or  sold  they,  of  course, 


THEY  ATE  MUCH  AND  DEVELOPED  RAPIDLY 

The   hog  consumes   less   dry   food   to   produce   a  given   increase  than   either 
the  sheep  or  the  steer.     He  is  therefore  our  best  meat  maker. 

showed  great  returns,  but  the  cost  of  bringing  up  to 
such  weights  was  not  considered.  When  put  to  the 
test  it  was  soon  realized  that  while  such  hogs  in  the 
feed  lot  would  take  on  a  large  increase,  the  cost  of 
the  increase  was  far  above  the  returns  in  money. 
In  other  words,  large  hogs  will  steadily  take  on  in- 
crease, but  they  do  so  only  with  great  consumption 
of  food. 


FEEDING   SWINE  245 

A  pig  of  proper  age  and  weighing  under  100 
pounds  will  require  less  than  300  pounds  of  feed 
to  yield  100  pounds  of  increase,  while  a  mature  hog 
weighing  300  pounds  will  demand  over  500  pounds 
of  feed  to  yield  100  pounds  of  increase.  There  is, 
therefore,  a  decided  economy  in  feeding  hogs  only 
up  to  a  certain  point.  This  point  ranges  from  175 
to  250  pounds,  depending  on  circumstances — the 
market  price  of  hogs,  and  the  sale  value  of  feed. 
In  these  days  few  hogs  are  fattened  by  feeders  until 
they  attain  a  weight  of  400  or  500  pounds.  If  they 
were,  every  pound  of  gain  would  cost  twice  as  much 
as  it  would  fetch  in  the  market. 

Rations  Are  Narrow  at  First. — The  first  food  of 
the  pig  is  milk;  and  milk  is  a  narrow  ration.  Soon 
after  birth  additional  food  is  demanded  that  will  ad- 
mit the  gradual  introduction  of  the  carbohydrate 
ingredients.  Middlings,  shelled  corn,  or  corn  meal 
may  each  be  profitably  used.  If  $l£im  milk  is  avail- 
able, it  will  supply  abundant  protein,  but  corn  meal, 
middlings  or  shorts  should  be  added  also.  This 
combination  is  easily  furnished  as  a  slop,  which 
may  be  continued  even  until  the  beginning  of  the 
fattening  period. 

The  young  pigs,  during  their  suckling  days,  will 
do  best  if  fed  additional  slop  in  a  separate  pen  and 
away  from  the  mother  and  the  larger  pigs.  Runs 
in  which  are  grown  green  grasses,  the  clovers  and 
other  forage  crops  are  indispensable  if  pork  is  to  be 
made  at  profitable  returns.  Provided  for  in  this 
manner,  the  pigs  will  widen  their  ration  in  accord- 
ance with  their  needs. 


246 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


The  ration,  which  at  first  was  very  narrow,  will 
now  widen  until  spread  to  one  part  of  protein  to  five 
or  six  parts  of  carbohydrates  and  fat.  When  the 
finish  of  the  fattening  period  has  been  reached  the 
ration  will  be  near  one  of  protein  to  eight  or  nine  of 
the  heat  and  fat-producing  ingredients. 

The  great  fattening  food  is  corn :  its  nutritive 
ratio  is  one  to  nine  plus.  Thus  the  food  changes  in 


VERY  SANITARY  AND  VERY  COSTLY 

A  hog  barn  of  this  order  is  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.     It  is  sanitary 
throughout,  admits  of  easy  feeding,  and  is  easily  cleaned. 

character  from  milk  to  corn  or  other  similar  foods, 
and  the  ration  is  gradually  widened  to  meet  the  in- 
creasing requirements  for  fat  production. 

Mineral  Matter  and  Charcoal. — If  the  ration  con- 
sists largely  of  corn,  young  hogs  on  pasture  are  not 
denied  the  necessary  mineral  elements  to  the  extent 
that  young  pigs  in  the  dry  feed  lot  are.  Pigs  grow 


FEEDING    SWINE 


247 


rapidly  if  fed  well ;  but  if  the  food  supply  is  deficient 
in  the  mineral  elements,  the  lack  is  told  in  the  ulti- 
mate results. 

Ground  bone  or  bone  meal  can  be  introduced  ad- 
vantageously into  the  ration  either  when  the  hogs 
are  in  the  feed  lot  or  on  pasture.  Soft  coal,  char- 
coal, and  salt,  either  in  mixture  or  given  separately, 
should  be  kept  before  the  animals  at  all  times. 


LEGUME  PASTURES  IDEAL  FOR  PIGS 

For  young  growing  pigs  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpeas  are  excellent  forage 
crops.  If  one  of  these  is  not  available,  tender  mixed  grasses  will  serve. 
Corn  or  slop  or  both  is  advisable  in  addition  to  the  green  forage. 

Making  a  Slop. — When  pigs  are  young,  food  in 
the  form  of  a  slop  is  niost  easily  and  safely  fed.  At 
first  it  should  be  quite  thin.  The  nearer  it  ap- 
proaches the  consistency  of  buttermilk  the  better 
for  the  pigs.  As  the  pigs  grow,  it  is  a  mistake  to 
continue  to  feed  a  very  thin  slop.  .An  oversupply  of 
water  in  slop  is  harmful ;  fat  production  is  thereby 
retarded.  Consequently,  if  the  food  is  given  in  this 


248  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

way,  the  water  is  to  be  lessened  as  the  animals  in- 
crease in  size. 

When  a  weight  of  100  pounds  or  so  has  been 
attained,  the  pigs  now  being  five  or  six  months  old, 
the  slop  should  be  so  made  as  to  have  a  consistency 
somewhat  like  mush.  If  the  pigs  demand  more  wa- 
ter than  this  food  gives,  let  it  be  available  as  drink. 

Pasture  for  Pigs. — The  great  opportunity  for 
making  a  profit  out  of  pigs,  especially  when  prices 
are  low  and  grain  products  high,  is  to  depend  on  the 
use  of  clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  alfalfa  and  rape 
pastures.  As  the  subject  of  pig  feeding  is  studied, 
more  conclusive  becomes  the  evidence  that  pasture 
crops  go  hand  in  hand  with  pork  production.  It 
should  be  the. swine  raiser's  aim  as  much  to  grow 
these  forage  crops  as  it  is  to  grow  the  hog  itself. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  the  legume  crops.  Alfalfa 
naturally  comes  first  because  of  its  highly  digestible 
nutrients,  its  vigorous  growth  and  consequent 
heavy  yields,  its  long  cycle  of  life  and  its  land-im- 
proving benefits.  In  time  alfalfa  will  be  commonly 
grown  in  all  sections. 

Hogs  may  be  turned  into  an  alfalfa  or  a  clover 
field  early  in  the  spring  and  kept  there  through  the 
season  until  frost,  provided  the  acreage  is  large  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  animals.  The  tramping 
will  not  hurt  the  crop,  and  the  grazing  of  the  swine 
will  not  impair  the  feeding  quality  of  the  alfalfa 
when  made  into  hay. 

When  a  large  field  is  pastured  a  portion  can  be 
cut,  to  be  followed  a  week  or  so  later  by  another 
portion,  and  so  until  the  field  has  been  cut  over.  In 


FEEDING    SWINE 


249 


this  way  there  will  be  a  new  growth  of  alfalfa  at  all 
times,  giving  the  pigs  just  the  sort  of  pasture  they 
desire.  Alfalfa  is  rich  in  protein ;  hence  the  addition 
of  corn  to  the  ration  while  the  animals  are  running 
on  the  pasture  is  advisable,  especially  if  early  matu- 
rity is  sought.  Young  pigs  on  alfalfa,  supplied  with 
a  light  feeding  of  corn  daily,  within  seven  or  eight 
months  will  weigh  250  pounds. 

Grazing  Runs  for  Hogs. — Where  large  fields  are 
not  available,  small  runs  may  be  resorted  to.    These 


y   ^"      ^^-RUN-WAV>      ^      ^      ^ 

OP 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

MAY 

JUNE 

JULY 

AUG. 

SEPT. 

OCT. 

RYE  & 

VETCH 

OATS  & 
PEAS 

OATS  & 
PEAS 

CORN  & 
BEANS 

CORN  & 
BEANS 

BARLEY 
&  RAPE 

.  SEPT. 

OCT. 

CORN 

RAPE 

1  PEN 

PLAN  OF  GRAZING  RUNS  FOR  HOGS 

The  hogs  are  shifted  each   month   to   a   fresh   pasture  in  which  one  of  the 
best  crops  of  the  season  is  available  as  food. 

solve  the  problem  very  satisfactorily  on  many  farms. 
The  small  run  lots  may  be  of  any  size  from  a  half 
acre  to  five  acres.  The  number  of  hogs  to  be  kept 
will  govern  both  size  and  number  of  runs.  An  aver- 
age size  is  about  an  acre.  One  or  two  of  these  lots 
may  be  permanent  pasture  of  either  clover  or  blue 
grass,  a  temporary  pasture  of  timothy  and  clover, 


25O  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

or  a  permanent  pasture  of  alfalfa.  The  other  lots 
may  be  used  in  rotation.  Several  of  them  may  be 
seeded  to  rye  in  the  fall  and  as  they  are  pastured  off 
in  turn  during  the  winter  and  spring,  they  may  be 
seeded  with  other  forage  plants.  The  one  first 
grazed  down  may  be  plowed  and  seeded  early  to 
peas  and  oats,  the  next  one  to  corn  or  sorghum  or  a 
mixture  of  the  two,  a  third  to  cowpeas,  and  the 
others  to  soy  beans,  rape,  peanuts  and  sweet  potatoes. 

As  each  crop  is  pastured  off,  other  summer  crops 
may  follow,  thus  giving  a  constant  rotation  of  for- 
age, and  all  as  preparatory  to  the  final  finishing 
period.  Hogs  that  have  been  brought  near  to  the 
finishing  period  with  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  peanuts 
and  sweet  potatoes,  should  be  finished  off  with  corn, 
since  the  flavor  of  the  meat  will  be  improved  and 
the  fat  will  be  less  soft  than  it  otherwise  might  be. 

Forage  for  Cheap  Gain. — Any  growing  crop  is 
helpful  in  raising  cheap  pork.  In  sections  where  a 
temporary  pasture  like  timothy  and  clover  is  the 
rule,  spring  pigs  may  be  given  the  range  of  the 
fields.  Thus  they  will  gather  a  considerable  portion 
of  their  food.  They  should  not  be  denied,  however, 
additional  food  in  the  way  of  slops  or  of  dry  grain. 
Corn,  or  corn  and  oil  meal,  or  corn  and  tankage,  may 
be  used  in  combination  to  insure  steady  growth. 
Spring  pigs  thus  raised  by  July  will  be  of  fair 
growth.  From  this  time  they  should  be  pushed 
somewhat  in  order  that  they  may  be  fat  by  late  fall 
or  early  winter. 

The  feeding  of  green  corn  on  pasture  is  a  com- 
mon practice  and  has  much  in  its  favor.  Practically 


FEEDING    SWINE 


251 


all  of  the  plant  but  the  coarse  stalk  is  consumed. 
The  kinds  of  forage  cover  a  wide  range.  The  fact 
is,  anything  green  that  is  appetizing  is  good  for 
hogs. 

Fattening  Hogs. — The  aim  should  be  to  get  flesh 
growth  rather  than  an  overburden  of  fat.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fattening  period  hogs  will  eat  40  to 


ENJOYING  THE  CHARCOAL  Box 

One  reason  why  thrift  is  frequently  wanting  is  due  to  an  insufficient 
supply  of  protein  and  the  mineral  elements  in  the  hog  ration.  A  charcoal 
box,  in  which  may  be  placed  charcoal,  soft  coal,  ground  bone,  salt  and  oil 
meal,  meets  the  situation. 


50  pounds  of  dry  matter  per  100  pounds  of  live 
weight.  This  diminishes  to  25  or  30  pounds  as  the 
fattening  period  advances.  Hogs  will  get  fat  on 
corn.  Their  best  development  is  obtained  only  when 
other  feeds  containing  more  protein  are  given. 
Tankage,  peas,  or  beans  are  excellent.  Use  one  part 
of  either  to  eight  or  ten  parts  of  corn  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  finishing  period. 


252  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

The  most  intensive  fattening  is  secured  when 
easily  digestible  material  is  given.  Corn  is  the  uni- 
versal food  and  enters  most  largely  into  the  grain 
combination.  All  other  grain  feeds  are  to  be  used 
as  supplements  and  as  balancing  foods  to  corn. 
During  the  beginning  period  of  fattening,  when 
clover,  alfalfa  or  other  pasture  is  available,  corn  is 


GETTING  THEIR  RATIONS  IN  A  PORTABLE  PEN 

The  portable  pen  makes  it  possible  to  finish  heavy  hogs  on  clean  feeding 
grounds.  It  is  for  outside  feeding  and  should  take  the  place  of  the  sta- 
tionary, filthy  feeding  lot. 

the  only  grain  necessary.     Fattening  hogs  can  be 
kept  on  such  pastures  almost  up  to  the  finish. 

Hogs  Very  Heavy  with  Fat  should  not  be  re- 
quired to  roam  about  for  food.  Hence,  during  the 
final  stage  of  fattening,  the  smaller  the  pasture  or 
feed  lot  the  less  the  loss  because  of  this  needless 
expenditure  of  energy.  A  great  many  of  the  most 
successful  feeders  take  the  fattening  hogs  from  pas- 


FEEDING   SWINE  253 

ture  to  the  feed  lot.  In  most  cases  corn  is  the  ex- 
clusive feed.  Water  should  be  at  hand  at  all  times 
or  available  at  frequent  intervals.  Rations  contain- 
ing one  part  of  tankage  or  meat  meal  or  soy  bean 
meal  to  eight  or  ten  parts  of  corn,  unless  corn  is  low 
in  value,  will  produce  a  more  rapid  growth  than  corn 
alone. 

Making  Good  Bacon. — Feeding  stuffs  greatly  in- 
fluence the  quality  of  bacon.  Oily  grains  have  the 
strongest  effect.  To  get  good  bacon,  these  oily 
grains  should  be  reduced  to  a  half  or  a  third  of  the 
whole  ration.  Since  corn  is  the  principal  food  for 
both  lard  and  bacon  hogs,  it  may  compose  as  much 
as  75  or  80  per  cent  of  the  ration.  Middlings  and 
tankage  may  be  used  for  the  balance. 

In  Canada,  where  bacon  is  in  much  favor,  barley 
is  a  common  food  for  hogs.  It  is  fed  both  ground 
and  soaked.  Other  foods  used  in  combination  with 
it  are  skim  milk,  peas,  oats  and  middlings.  If  oats  are 
used  they  should  be  crushed.  The  most  profit  from 
bacon  is  secured  when  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  or 
rape  are  provided  as  forage. 

HOGGING  OFF  CORN 

Hogs  as  Harvesters. — The  practice  of  getting  fall 
hogs  ready  for  market  by  turning  them  into  the 
cornfield  while  the  corn  is  still  green  is  not  new, 
but  is  a  method  not  generally  followed.  There  is 
a  feeling  that  hogging  off  is  wasteful  and  poor 
economy  of  labor  and  effort.  The  facts  clearly  indi- 
cate that  the  custom  economizes  labor  and  expense 


254 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


and  the  hogs  do  better  than  by  some  other  methods. 
That  is  the  point :  you  get  the  most  pork  at  the  least 
expenditure  of  money. 

Not  only  do  hogs  produce  more  with  less  grain 
in  hogging  off,  but  they  actually  mature  in  less 
time  than  when  pen  fed.  It  is  not  unusual  to  save 
at  least  a  quarter  of  the  fattening  period  where  this 
method  is  followed.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  prepare 


HOGGING  OFF  THE  CORN 

Hogs  are  here  harvesting  the  corn  crop.  They  not  only  eat  all  of  the 
ears,  but  consume  the  greater  part  of  the  stalks.  When  the  fat  hogs  are 
removed  brood  sows  and  pigs  should  be  turned  into  the  field  to  clean  up. 

land  for  a  subsequent  crop  after  a  corn  crop  has  been 
harvested  by  hogs  as  when  the  corn  has  been  re- 
moved in  the  ordinary  way.  The  hogs  waste  no 
more  grain  by  hogging  off  than  is  lost- by  ordinary 
husking.  Hogs  pick  just  about  as  clean  as  huskers. 
The  labor  item  is  not  inconsiderable,  either.  A 
five  to  ten-acre  field  of  good  corn  will  carry  50  to  75 
hogs  from  the  shote  to  the  finished  period.  Of  course 


FEEDING   SWINE  255 

the  nature  of  the  corn — whether  the  crop  is  heavy 
or  light — will  govern  the  number  of  hogs  that  can  be 
fed  in  this  way,  but  the  total  quantity  of  pork  pro- 
duced from  a  given  acreage  when  hogged  off  will  be 
greater  than  when  husked  ears  or  snapped  corn  is 
fed  in  pens. 

Young  Hogs,  Weighing  80  to  125  Pounds,  will 
do  best  in  the  green  cornfield.  At  this  size  they 
possess  good  frames,  are  mature  enough,  and  carry 
enough  flesh  to  fatten  in  a  few  weeks  and  be  ready 
for  market.  Of  course,  brood  sows  will  make  good 
use  of  green  corn  also.  When  thin  from  suckling 
pigs,  or  for  any  cause  they  are  unthrifty,  they  will 
quickly  flesh  up  and  improve  and  be  ready  for  mar- 
ket in  from  30  to  50  days. 

While  corn  may  be  hogged  off  at  any  period,  it  is 
best  to  let  it  mature  somewhat.  Then  you  get  all 
there  is  in  the  crop.  If  the  ordinary  summer  pas- 
ture is  short,  give  some  additional  feed  like  shorts 
and  middlings  in  slop  to  tide  along  until  the  corn 
is  fairly  well  developed.  When  it  has  passed  the 
milk  stage,  and  is  somewhat  dented,  the  hogs  may 
be  turned  into  the  field. 

The  entire  field  is  usually  given  over  to  the  hogs, 
when  labor  is  high,  the  soil  not  wet,  and  the  herd 
and  the  field  not  large  in  size.  Use  old  hogs,  stock 
hogs  and  brood  sows  for  cleaning  up  after  the  fat- 
tening bunch  has  been  taken  away.  Not  much  will 
be  left,  of  course,  but  still  some;  if  this  were  not 
so,  the  fattening  hogs  would  have  been  fed  rather 
unwisely  for  the  last  week  or  two. 


256  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

SOME  SAMPLE  RATIONS 

For  Young  Pigs. 

When  weaned  and  eight  to  ten  weeks  old: 

1.  Skim  milk,  crushed  corn  and  middlings  in  equal 

parts  by  weight. 

2.  Thin  slop  of  about  the  consistency  of  butter- 

milk, consisting  of  such  ground  grain  feeds 
as  are  available.  Use  corn  meal,  ground  oats, 
middlings,  oil  meal,  etc.  As  the  pigs  grow 
older,  gradually  thicken  the  slop.  When  they 
are  six  or  eight  months  old  the  slop  should  be 
like  a  thick  mush. 

3.  Pigs  in  Dry  Lot. — If  milk  is  available,  give  I 

part  of  corn  to  3  parts  skim  milk ;  if  not,  then 
6  parts  corn,  3  parts  middlings  and  I  part 
tankage. 

For  Pigs  Three  to  Six  Months  of  Age. 

Daily  feed  on  basis  of  100  pounds  of  live  weight : 

At  three  months :  3  pounds  of  corn  meal ;  I  pound 
of  soy  bean  meal  or  2  pounds  of  middlings ;  5 
pounds  of  skim  milk;  7  pounds  of  water. 

At  four  months :  4  pounds  of  corn  meal ;  0.8 
pound  of  soy  bean  meal  or  I  pound  of  mid- 
dlings; 5  pounds  of  skim  milk;  6  pounds  of 
water. 

At  five  months :  5  pounds  of  corn  meal ;  0.5 
pound  of  soy  bean  meal  or  0.75  pound  of 
middlings;  5  pounds  of  skim  milk;  3  pounds 
of  water. 


FEEDING    SWINE 


257 


At  six  months :  4  pounds  of  corn  meal ;  0.4  pound 
of  soy  bean  meal  or  0.5  pound  of  middlings ; 
5  pounds  of  skim  milk;  2  pounds  of  water. 

Pigs  on  Pasture. — When  pigs  are  allowed  the  run 
of  a  clover,  cowpea  or  alfalfa  pasture  and  weigh  from 
roo  to  150  pounds,  rapid  gains  will  follow  if  a  mix- 
ture consisting  of  10  parts  corn,  5  parts  middlings 
and  i  part  tankage  be  fed.  If  corn  is  low  in  price 
use  15  parts  of  corn  to  I  part  tankage  or  2  parts  oil 
meal. 

Fattening  Hogs  in  Dry  Lot. — At  the  beginning  of 
the  fattening  period  give  6  parts  corn  and  3  parts 
middlings  or  I  part  tankage.  When  hogs  have 
reached  a  weight  of  180  to  200  pounds,  give  8  parts 
corn,  and  I  part  tankage  or  other  food  of  a  protein 
nature. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
FEEDING  FARM  POULTRY 

Farm  poultry  is  now  a  home  necessity  in  every 
community.  A  few  years  ago  the  domestic  hen  was 
compelled  to  shift  about  and  to  get  her  food  as  best 
she  could.  Times  have  brought  a  change  in  this 
respect.  The  demand  for  eggs  and  poultry  meat  has 
been  so  great  and  so  insistent  as  to  make  poultry 
raising  one  of  the  most  profitable  adjuncts  to  farm- 
ing. On  many  farms,  farm  poultry  now  is  exclu- 
sively the  source  of  income,  and  all  labor  and  crop 
production  are  directed  to  that  end. 

All  fowls  are  greedy  feeders.  While  they  use 
food  substances  similar  in  form  to  what  other  classes 
of  farm  stock  require,  their  food  should  be  intro- 
duced in  somewhat  different  ways.  Rapid  growth 
calls  for  much  concentrated  food;  and  where  egg 
production  is  the  aim,  concentrated  grain  is  de- 
manded at  all  times.  There  is  a  need  of  much  min- 
eral matter  for  both  growth  and  eggs.  In  a  compar- 
ative way  poultry  calls  for  more  of  this  than  other 
kinds  of  live  stock.  There  is  less  fat  and  more  pro- 
tein in  poultry  than  in  other  meat-producing  ani- 
mals. In  composition,  eggs  are  similar  to  lean 
meat;  hence,  in  feeding  for  eggs,  a  comparatively 
large  amount  of  nitrogenous  material  should  be 
available  as  food. 

Eggs  Chemically  Analyzed. — The  egg  that  the 
fowl  produces  is,  next  to  milk,  man's  best  food,  the 

258. 


FEEDING   FARM    POULTRY  259 

most  strengthening,  the  purest,  the  most  unadulter- 
able,  the  most  healthful  for  young  and  old.  An- 
alyzed chemically,  the  white  of  an  egg  contains  85 
per  cent  of  water,  the  yolk  51  per  cent  of  water  and 
31  per  cent  of  fat.  The  shell  is  composed  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  lime,  iron,  sulphur  and  gluten. 


BUSINESS  FLOCK  OF  LIGHT  BRAHMA 

These  fowls,  while  the  heavyweights  of  poultry  varieties,  require  extra 
food  because  they  are  rather  poor  foragers.  Hoppers  of  food  should  always 
be  within  reach. 

Various  Rations  Required. — A  variety  of  food- 
stuffs is  to  be  preferred  in  feeding  poultry,  young 
or  old.  In  many  instances,  single  foods  are  given, 
but  these  cases  usually  apply  to  free  range  condi- 
tions when  grass,  seeds,  insects  and  worms  are 
picked  up.  If  the  entire  country  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration, no  doubt  more  farm  fowls  are  fed  on  corn 
than  on  any  other  single  foodstuff.  On  most  farms 
there  are  certain  by-products  and  damaged  food, 


260 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


like  shrunken  wheat  grains  and  wheat  screenings, 
that  are  set  aside  for  the  poultry,  but  as  a  general 
rule  corn  is  the  principal  food,  especially  in  the 
winter.  Often  wheat  bran  is  given  as  a  wet  mash. 
Perhaps  the  grain  that  comes  nearest  meeting  the 
requirement  of  a  single  food  is  wheat.  On  account 
of  its  commercial  value,  however,  it  is  used  spar- 
ingly, in  combination  with  other  food  materials,  or 

not  at  all. 

By  means  of  variety  a  bet- 
ter balanced  ration  can  be 
had  than  otherwise.  Both 
poultry  flesh  and  eggs  are 
to  be  ranked  with  the  lean 
meat  products.  While  excel- 
lent results  often  come  from 
the  use  of  corn  or  from 
rations  largely  containing 
corn  and  other  carbonaceous 
GREEN  FEED  feeds>  generally  ^  speaking, 

Rape,      cabbage,      mangels,     Other     products     like     wheat, 

bran,  meat,  oats,  skim  milk 
and  green  food  are  now 
accepted  as  poultry  feeds,  of 
the  first  class  and  are  always  desirable,  especially  for 
egg  production  in  the  winter  season. 

Feed  for  Little  Chicks. — Perhaps  there  is  no  best 
way  of  feeding  little  chicks  just  out  of  the  shell  and 
for  some  time  thereafter.  Many  plans  are  followed 
and  all  bring  success,  other  conditions  being  satis- 
factory. Cooked  and  uncooked  feed,  baked  and  raw 
feed,  wet  and  dry  mashes  are  all  used.  So,  too,  are 


etc.,  are  necessary  for  fowls 
confined,  and  during  winter. 
Fastening  up  as  here  shown 
is  the  best  way  to  feed  green 
stuff. 


FEEDING    FARM    POULTRY 


26l 


many  kinds  and  classes  of  food  products  selected. 
It  largely  depends  on  the  conveniences  available, 
the  equipment  and  on  the  taste  and  peculiarities  of 
the  attendant. 

It  is  more  risky  to  feed  moist  or  wet  products 
than  dry  or  crumbly  dry  ones  to  young  chicks,  because 
of  possible  digestive  disturbances.  For  this  reason  dry 


COMBINATION  HOPPER  FOR  FIELD  OR  YARD  USE 

Beneath  the  hinged  roof  are  compartments  for  various  grains,  grit,  shell, 
charcoal,  etc.     Enough  feed  is  put  in  these  bins  to  last  for  several  days, 

cracked  grain  is  generally  preferred,  even  though  wet 
mashes  are  introduced  into  the  feeding  plan  at  a  later 
period.  One  method  is  to  feed  corn  bread  finely 
crumbed,  five  times  a  day,  for  the  first  few  days.  The 
bread  is  made  of  four  parts  of  coarse  corn  meal  to  two 
parts  of  wheat  bran,  mixed  with  water,  or  milk,  and 
baked  brown.  After  the  use  of  this  for  a  week, 
a  mixture  of  finely  cracked  and  small  grains  is  kept 


262  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

in  shallow  troughs  where  the  chicks  can  help  them- 
selves. In  addition  to  this  ration  sweet  milk  is  fed 
every  day  when  available.  Green  food  should  be 
furnished  fresh.  Lettuce  leaves  are  excellent  for 
young  chicks.  If  allowed  a  grass  run  the  lettuce  is 
not  needed,  but  skim  milk  is  desirable. 

Another  plan  is  this :  When  the  young  chicks  are 
48  to  60  hours  old  they  are  fed  hard-boiled  eggs. 
They  should  be  fed  frequently  in  very  small 
amounts.  The  eggs  may  be  some  of  those  tested  out 
from  the  incubator  or  eggs  otherwise  unfit  for  use 
in  the  kitchen.  Following  this  ration,  place  before 
the  chicks  in  shallow  pans  a  dry  mash  consisting 
of  two  pounds  of  corn  meal,  two  pounds  of  shorts, 
two  pounds  of  bran,  two  pounds  of  beef  scrap  and  a 
half  pound  of  charcoal.  This  ration  may  be  fed  un- 
til the  chicks  are  of  considerable  size.  The  ration 
is  now  changed  to  two  pounds  each  of  millet,  sifted 
cracked  corn,  cracked  sorghum  seed  and  cracked 
wheat.  Of  course,  fresh  water  and  clean  grit  should 
be  before  the  chicks  at  all  times.  When  they  are 
large  enough  to  eat  whole  grain,  the  cracked  ma- 
terials should  be  withdrawn.  Chicks  that  are  very 
early  hatched,  and  those  that  have  grown  rapidly  till 
midsummer  should  not  have  much  beef  scrap.  If 
the  young  chicks  are  hatched  very  early,  or  if  they 
mature  unusually  early,  they  may  molt  the  first  sea- 
son. Both  should  be  prevented,  the  latter  by 
cautious  feeding. 

Commercial  feeds  for  young  chicks  consist  of 
various  mixtures  containing  small  grain,  cracked 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  millet,  hemp,  etc.  They  are  not 


FEEDING   FARM    POULTRY  263 

different  from  what  any  poultry  raiser  himself  can 
prepare  at  a  cost  considerably  under  what  the  retail 
merchant  sells  them  for. 

Weaned  Chicks  on  Good  Range  may  be  fed  a 
mash  in  the  morning,  with  cracked  corn,  or  other 
grain,  or  mixture  of  grains,  scattered  broadcast  over 
the  range,  and  the  mash  again  in  the  evening.  The 
mixture  scattered  over  the  range  should  be  a  day's 
allowance.  Young  chickens  on  good  range  are  often 


LEGHORN   FLOCK  AT  RANGE 

Nothing  is  better  for  poultry,  especially  layers,  than  free  range  on  clover 
or  alfalfa.  The  fowls  not  only  get  exercise,  but  gather  a  large  quantity 
of  protein  in  highly  available  form. 

fed  the  table  scraps  mixed  with  corn  meal,  shorts 
and  bran.  These  are  served  in  equal  parts,  once  a 
day.  Cracked  corn  is  kept  in  troughs  or  hoppers  at 
all  times. 

A  ration  recommended  by  the  Maine  station  for 
young  chickens  in  brooders  is  as  follows :  Boil  the 
infertile  eggs  for  a  half  hour;  grmd,  shell  and  all, 
in  a  meat  chopper,  and  mix  with  rolled  oats,  six 
times  the  bulk  of  the  eggs ;  feed  with  chick  grit  on 


264  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

the  brooder  floor.  If  eggs  are  not  available,  beef 
scrap  may  be  substituted  and  a  ration  consisting  of 
the  following  given :  Rolled  oats,  bran,  corn  meal,  lin- 
seed meal,  two  parts  each,  and  beef  scrap,  one  part. 
After  three  days  the  following  mixture  is  substituted : 
Cracked  wheat,  15  parts ;  pin  head  oatmeal,  10  parts ; 
cracked  corn,  15  parts;  cracked  peas,  three  parts; 
broken  rice,  two  parts;  chicken  grit,  five  parts;  fine 
charcoal,  two  parts.  No  wet  mash  is  given  these 
chicks  until  three  weeks  old.  After  that  age  they 
are  given  wheat  grain,  two  parts ;  corn  meal,  four 
parts ;  middlings,  two  parts ;  linseed  meal,  one  part ; 
beef  scrap  two  parts.  This  mixture  is  slightly  mois- 
tened with  water  and  fed  in  troughs. 

When  chicks  are  five  or  six  weeks  old  cracked 
grain  may  be  omitted  and  wheat  and  fine  cracked 
corn  scattered  in  the  litter. 

Feeding  Larger  Chicks. — After  chicks  are  five  or 
six  weeks  old,  the  period  of  greatest  danger  is  past, 
so  far  as  the  feed  is  concerned.  They  may  now  be  fed 
less  frequently  and  a  greater  variety  of  food  may 
be  given.  A  good  mash  is  provided  in  ground  corn, 
oats  and  bran,  with  a  little  salt.  This  should  be  fed 
once  a  day.  Twice  a  week  meat  scraps  or  blood  meal 
should  be  introduced  into  this  mash.  A  small 
amount  of  bone  meal  or  bone  dust  will  not  be  out  of 
place  if  fed  daily. 

Animal  protein  and  bone  material  are  both  fre- 
quently denied  on  the  farm ;  but  this  is  due  more  to 
a  lack  of  these  materials  as  feed  and  knowledge 
of  their  need  than  either  to  carelessness  or  deliber- 
ate refusal.  As  the  requirements  of  poultry  feed- 


FEEDING    FARM    POULTRY 


ing  are  better  understood  this  apparent  neglect  will 
be  rectified.  Young  chicks,  like  other  young  ani- 
mals, require  much  protein  for  muscles  and  feathers 
and  much  mineral  matter  for  bone.  Lime,  while  not 
necessary  in  such  large  quantities  as  for  laying  hens, 
should  nevertheless  be  included  in  the  ration. 


CRATE  FEEDING  FOR  FANCY  MARKET 

A  rather  sloppy  mash  of  milk  and  mixed  meal,  principally  oats,  is  given 
the  fowls  two  to  four  times  daily  for  ten  days  or  two  weeks  before  killing. 
As  the  fowls  have  no  exercise  during  this  time  they  increase  in  weight  and 
their  flesh  improves  in  quality. 

Ground  oyster  shell  is  all  that  is  needed.  Charcoal 
should  be  kept  before  the  young  fowls.  It  is  an 
inexpensive  corrective,  even  if  purchased,  but  usu- 
ally it  is  available  on  the  farm. 

Fattening   the    Cockerels. — On   most   farms    the 
cockerels  are  given  the  range  of  the  field  and  are  not 


266 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


PROTECTED  FEED  TROUGH 

Found  useful  where  young 
and  old  fowls  must  run  together. 
The  openings  between  slats  are 
too  narrow  for  full-grown  fowls 
to  pass  through. 


disposed  of  until  late  in  the  fall.  Circumstances  will 
govern  as  to  what  is  best  to  do  with  them.  Ordina- 
rily it  is  less  profitable  to  allow  them  to  run  at  large 
than  to  confine  them.  On  many  farms  the  cockerels 

are  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  flock  when 
they  have  reached  an  age 
of  five  or  six  weeks  and 
fed  so  as  to  reach  an  early 
market. 

Range  chickens  will  eat 
a  great  deal  of  food,  more 
than  is  generally  sup- 
posed ;  and  they  use  up  a  good  deal  of  their  muscle 
and  flesh  as  they  wander  about.  Where  but  few 
chickens  are  raised  and  these  only  for  home  use,  this 
is  a  matter  of  small  consequence;  but  if  the  cock- 
erels are  to  be  sold  it  is 
best  to  get  them  ready  for 
market  as  early  as  possi- 
ble and  not  to  permit 
them  to  "run  their  flesh 
off"  in  seeking  their  food. 
A  good  fattening  ration 
consists  of  corn  for 
grain  and  corn  meal,  bran 
and  ground  oats  for  mash. 
In  preparing  the  mash, 
make  it  moist  with  skim 

milk  if  available.  In  case  skim  milk  is  not  to  be  had, 
use  meat  scraps  two  or  three  times  a  week.  Give  at  a 
feed  about  all  the  fowls  will  eat  up  clean,  three  times 


FEED  HOPPERS  FILLED  FROM  ALLEY 

For  convenience  this  plan  is 
admirable.  The  hoppers  dis- 
charge into  the  pens,  but  are 
filled  from  outside. 


FEEDING    FARM    POULTRY  267 

daily.  Grit  and  water  are  both  indispensable,  and 
some  green  food  for  variety  will  not  be  out  of  place. 

Grain  Feed  for  Fowls. — For  growing  chicks  and 
fattening  fowls  the  grain  should  be  ground.  Opin- 
ions differ  as  to  the  necessity  of  grinding  grains  for 
egg  production.  Corn  is  the  standard  grain  for 
chickens.  The  eggs  resulting  when  it  is  largely  used 
in  the  ration  are  of  good  quality,  and  the  yolk  is 
rich  and  of  a  strong  yellow.  Corn  is  also  usually 
the  cheapest  grain.  On  account  of  its  carbonaceous 
nature  it  is  not  a  good  food  as  an  exclusive  grain, 
either  in  fattening  or  in  egg  production.  Buckwheat 
is  very  highly  prized  as  a  food  for  layers.  It  may 
be  fed  whole  or  ground.  Kafir  corn  has  been  most 
satisfactory  when  fed  whole.  It  ranks  about  with 
corn,  which  it  resembles  in  composition. 

For  young  chicks  good  poultrymen  approve  of 
rolled  oats,  but  whole  oats  are  not  greatly  relished 
by  any  class  of  poultry  stock.  If  ground,  they  give 
good  results  in  mashes  wet  or  dry.  Barley  is  liked 
by  hens,  and  is  superior  to  oats  because  of  the 
smaller  quantity  of  hull.  Whole  wheat  or  wheat 
screenings  make  an  ideal  ration  for  hens.  Wheat  is 
liked  next  to  corn  by  poultry.  It  can  be  fed  for 
indefinite  periods  without  injury  to  the  fowls.  This 
is  true  also  of  wheat  screenings. 

The  oil  meals,  on  account  of  their  concentrated 
nature,  must  be  fed  sparingly.  These  include  the 
glutens,  linseed  oil  meal  and  cottonseed  meal.  Lin- 
seed meal  has  been  more  generally  fed  than  the 
others.  There  is  not  the  demand  for  these  meals 
in  poultry  feeding  that  there  is  for  other  stock,  since 


268  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

meat,  scrap  is  available  and  this  takes  their  place 
to  a  great  extent.  Many  other  grains  are  fed  to 
poultry  with  good  success.  It  is  not  so  much  the 
kind  of  grain  as  the  availability.  Local  grains  and 
feeding  stuffs  share  with  the  standard  ones  in  all 
sections  both  in  efficiency  and  popularity. 

Green  Feeds. — Lack  of  green  food  invariably  af- 
fects  egg   production   unfavorably.       When    flocks 


HflnHBB 


THE  DOUBLE-YARDING  SYSTEM 

While  the  flock  runs  in  one  yard,  rye,  turnips,  rape,  or  other  green  stuff 
is  grown  in  the  other,  both  to  sweeten  the  ground  and  to  supply  forage 
for  the  fowls. 


are  at  range  they  secure  abundance,  but  flocks 
in  yards  and  in  winter  quarters  must  be  supplied. 
Green  food  may  be  fed  at  all  times  without  stint. 
Among  the  best  feeds  are  clover,  alfalfa,  grass, 
vetches,  rape,  rye,  mangels,  kale,  cabbages,  sugar 
beets,  and  turnips. 

During  the  winter  cabbage  is  especially  useful. 
Root  crops  are  good  also.  The  leaves  and  broken 
heads  from  the  hay  mow  may  be  steamed  if  de- 
sired. Kale  and  alfalfa  contain  large  amounts  of 


FEEDING   FARM    POULTRY  269 

protein  and  ash,  the  latter  and  clover  giving  quality 
to  the  eggs.  Sprouted  oats  fed  during  the  winter 
time  have  brought  favorable  results,  but  are  more 
costly  than  other  green  feeds  mentioned.  They  are 
fed  two  or  three  times  weekly,  or  more  often.  A 
warm  room,  sunshine  and  close  attention  are  neces- 
sary if  they  are  to  be  grown  in  amounts  called  for 
to  supply  succulence  and  green  feed. 


INTERIOR  OF  WELL-ARRANGED  POULTRY  PEN 

Note  trap  nests  beneath  roosts  on  left,  cock  or  broody  hen  coop  in 
corner,  feed  hoppers  on  the  wall,  open  front  at  right  and  cloth  screen  for 
window  pulled  up  to  ceiling. 

During  the  growing  season,  if  hens  are  kept  in- 
closed, either  runs  should  be  provided  where  they 
can  obtain  the  green  food,  or  the  green  food  should 
be  daily  given,  just  as  it  would  be  given  live  stock 
when  the  soiling  system  is  practiced.  While  alfalfa 
and  clover  meals  are  excellent  for  hens,  they  are  not 
complete  substitutes  for  green  products.  Both  are 
rich  in  protein,  and  are  therefore  valuable  foods; 


270  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

they  cost  a  good  deal  more  than  the  green  products, 
and  are  not  real  substitutes.  For  winter  feeding, 
especially  for  high-priced  eggs,  they  can  be  intro- 
duced into  the  ration,  provided  their  cost  is  not  too 
great.  Where  grains  and  meals  are  extensively  used 
in  winter,  even  though  the  eggs  bring  high  prices, 
the  cost  of  production  may  not  meet  the  labor  items, 
and  hence  may  overbalance  all  the  profit. 

Meat  or  Animal  Feed  Important. — Animal  food 
of  some  sort  is  believed  to  be  necessary  to  maintain 
fowls  in  vigorous  health  and  productivity,  whether 
the  aim  be  flesh  or  eggs.  Probably  no  one  thing  has 
done  more  to  increase  profits  than  feeding  animal 
food.  Scarcity  of  eggs  during  the  winter  is  largely 
due  to  deficiency  in  this  line.  Chickens  when  at  lib- 
erty during  the  summer  secure  abundant  animal 
food  in  the  form  of  bugs  and  worms.  Something  to 
take  the  place  of  this  food  is  necessary,  especially 
when  the  snow  is  on  the  ground.  Fresh  meat  scrap 
from  the  butcher  shop  is  an  excellent  egg  maker. 

On  many  farms  bone  cutters  are  run  by  hand  O1r 
power,  depending  on  the  number  of  chickens  kept., 
and  fresh  meat  and  bone  are  given  the  poultry  at 
regular  intervals.  Bone  is  eaten  just  as  greedily  as 
the  scraps  of  meat.  The  call  for  mineral  matter  is 
met  to  some  extent  in  the  bone  supply.  Doubtless 
the  most  convenient  form  in  which  to  feed  animal 
food  is  beef  scrap  or  meat  scrap,  a  boiled  and  dried 
by-product  of  the  large  packing  houses.  As  it 
reaches  the  poultryman  it  contains  meat  and  bone  in 
varying  proportions,  which  should  analyze  50  to  60 
per  cent  protein.  It  also  varies  in  quality,  but 


FEEDING   FARM    POULTRY 


271 


should  be  light  colored  always,  have  a  meaty  flavor, 
and  be  rather  oily  to  the  touch.  When  boiling  water 
is  added  to  it,  it  should  smell  like  fresh  meat.  If  a 
putrid  odor  is  given  off  it  should  not  be  fed. 

Grit  Is  Necessary. — At  all  times  chickens  need 
grit,  regardless  of  its  function — whether  it  grinds 
the  food  or  in  itself  is  food,  it  matters  not.  The  fact 
is,  grit  is  absolutely  essential,  and 
fowls  are  in  search  of  it  at  all  times 
if  not  otherwise  provided.  Re- 
peated tests  have  been  made  with 
and  without  its  use  in  the  ration 
and  all  have  shown  conclusively 
that  it  is  indispensable  to  the  health 
of  the  fowls  and  to  egg  production. 
When  gravel  is  close  by  the  grit 
question  is  easily  answered.  If  the 
gravel  is  scarce  some  kind  of  grit 
must  be  provided. 

Besides  ordinary  grit,  it  is  desir- 
able to  supply  other  material  for 
making  the  egg  shell.  Grain  does 
not  contain  sufficient  lime  for  great 
egg  layers.  Oyster  and  other  sea  shells  are  largely  used 
for  this  purpose,  since  they  are  very  readily  dissolved 
in  the  gizzard.  Lack  of  lime  or  other  shell  material  in 
the  ration  often  leads  to  the  egg-eating  habit  among 
hens.  Charcoal  is  useful  as  a  bowel  regulator.  The 
most  successful  poultrymen  keep  it  constantly  be- 
fore the  hens.  Salt  in  moderation  aids  digestion.  An 
ounce  or  two  daily  is  sufficient  for  100  hens. 

Hens  in  Summer. — If  the  hens  have  the  run  of  the 


FEED  HOPPER 

For       grain,  grit, 

shell,  charcoal,  etc., 

this  is  a  popular  pat- 
tern. 


j;  o  •  4 


272 


FEEDING  FARM  POULTRY  2/3 

farm,  the  problem  of  feeding  is  simple.  In  pasture 
fields  and  meadows  they  will  secure  insects,  seeds 
and  grass,  supplying  in  this  way  what  they  need 
for  maintenance  and  eggs.  Some  grain,  however, 
should  be  fed  daily.  This  may  be  a  variety,  or  one 
or  more  common  grains  like  corn,  wheat,  sorghum 
or  millet.  A  mash  feed  two  or  three  times  a  week, 
with  salt  added,  is  greatly  relished.  If  skim  milk 
or  buttermilk  is  available,  let  it  be  kept  before  the 


OPEN  FEED  TROUGH  FOR  FOWLS  AT  RANGE 

The  ordinary  V-shaped  trough  is  popular  especially  for  feeding  wet  mashes. 
Objection    to    it    is   that   the    fowls   soil    it   easily. 

fowls,  but  see  that  the  vessels  are  clean  and  sweet. 
A  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  or  any  of  the  coal  tar 
dips  in  the  milk  and  water  will  assist  in  keeping 
things  pure  and  wholesome. 

During  the  Molt. — One  of  the  most  critical 
periods  in  the  life  of  the  hen  is  during  the  molting 
period.  At  this  time  nutritious  and  wholesome 
foods  are  advisable — those  rich  in  protein — in  order 
that  a  supply  of  substances  may  be  at  hand  for  the 
new  feathers.  Wheat,  oats,  peas  and  sunflower  are 


274  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

all  excellent.  Some  oil  meal  in  the  mash,  with  bran, 
should  be  fed  daily.  Many  poultrymen  who  feed 
cracklings  at  this  period  hold  that  these  and  oil  meal 
are  two  indispensable  food  products  for  success  with 
hens  during  the  molting  season. 

While  good  layers  usually  lay  more  or  less  dur- 
ing the  early  stages  of  the  molt,  they  usually  stop 
when  the  new  feathers  are  forming  rapidly.  At- 
tempts have  been  made  to  hasten  molting,  and  suc- 
cess has  been  obtained,  but  the  advantages  have  not 
been  particularly  manifest.  If  the  hens  are  starved 
for  a  period  and  then  heavily  fed,  the  shedding  of 
the  old  feathers  and  starting  of  the  new  will  be  ap- 
parent; but  little  effect  seems  to  follow  in  way  of 
increased  egg  production.  The  best  way  seems  to 
be  in  heavy  feeding;  in  providing  an  abundance  of 
food  of  the  nature  that  builds  flesh,  feathers  and 
eggs. 

Feeding  for  Eggs  in  Winter. — The  reason  that  the 
hens  do  not  lay  in  winter,  is  not  because  they  are 
underfed,  but  because  they  are  too  fat.  Hens  are 
like  other  animals.  Feed  them  abundantly,  put 
them  under  conditions  where  exercise  is  not  taken 
and  they  will  become  fat  and  lazy.  Moreover,  the 
ovules  of  the  hen  become  inactive  and  egg  produc- 
tion is  an  impossibility.  It  is  this  way :  During  the 
summer  and  the  fall  months  the  hens  range  in  all 
directions  over  the  farm  in  search  of  food,  appetizing 
grasses,  tender  insects  and  juicy  berries  of  field  and 
fence  corners.  This  exercise  on  the  fields  puts  them 
in  excellent  health  and  vigor.  Then  the  farm  crops 
are  harvested  and  gathered.  On  most  farms  corn  is 


FEEDING    FARM    POULTRY  275 

gathered  and  stored;  and  in  most  instances  it  is 
cribbed  where  the  hens  can  get  at  it.  They  greedily 
eat  of  this  appetizing  grain,  and,  easily  obtainable, 
they  forget  their  summer  habits  of  thrift  and  search, 
and  now  seek  the  corn  cribs  for  their  daily  supply. 
The  result  is  inevitable;  they  get  fat  and  quit  lay- 
ing. So  long  as  corn  remains  they  continue  in  their 
gluttoning  and  also  fail  to  lay.  Once  in  this  condi- 


MIXED  FLOCK  EATING  GRAIN 

Especially  in  winter  the  evening  meal  usually  consists  of  grain,  because 
it  requires  longer  to  digest  than  m?sh.  Thus  the  fowls  are  believed  to  be 
more  comfortable  during  the  night  than  when  their  stomachs  become  empty. 

tion  their  usefulness  as  layers  has  passed,  and  the 
sooner  they  are  eaten  or  sent  to  market  the  better. 
The  average  farmer  needs  to  correct  this  error  in 
order  to  put  things  in  the  way  for  more  eggs  during 
winter.  This,  however,  will  not  suffice.  Green  food, 
a  variety  of  grains,  and  meat  scraps  are  needed  to 
supply  the  egg-producing  materials,  that  the  hens 
may  do  their  best.  See  that  the  hens  take  exercise 


276  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

during  winter.  Provide  a  scratching  pen.  Keep 
this  in  a  deep  litter  of  cut  or  fine  straw,  both  dry 
and  clean,  and  scatter  the  grains  in  it.  The  hens 
will  have  to  work  to  eat ;  and  by  thus  exercising, 
they  will  not  grow  fat ;  and  if  not  fat  but  active  and 
vigorous,  they  will  naturally  lay  eggs. 

Tried  Ration  for  Laying  Hens. — The  Cornell  sta- 
tion has  tested  many  combinations  in  search  of  the 
best  grain  mixtures  for  the  winter  production  of 
eggs.  As  a  result  of  these  feeding  tests  the  follow- 
ing ration  has  been  suggested :  For  grain,  mix  100 
pounds  of  wheat,  100  pounds  of  cracked  corn  and  50 
pounds  of  oats  and  feed  in  deep  litter  sparingly  in 
the  morning  and  freely  at  night.  Mash  fed  in  the 
afternoon  in  hoppers  consists  of  the  following:  60 
pounds  of  wheat  middlings,  60  pounds  of  corn  meal, 
50  pounds  of  beef  scrap,  30  pounds  of  wheat  bran, 
10  pounds  of  alfalfa  meal,  10  pounds  of  linseed  oil 
meal  and  a  half  pound  of  salt. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  SILO  AND  SILAGE 

The  silo  does  for  live  stock  what  fruit  cans  and 
fruit  jars  do  for  man.  We  know  that  a  tomato  will 
quickly  decay  if  not  put  in  the  fruit  jar  where  it  can 
be  sealed  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  bacteria. 


NEAT  SILO  FOR  LONG   SERVICE 

The  silo  is  a  large  pit  that  holds  cut-up  corn  or  other 
forage,  keeps  it  succulent  and  prevents  the  maturity 
of  the  plant  cells. 

The  object  of  the  silo  is  to  keep  the  forage  as  near 
the  green  state  as  possible.  To  this  fact  is  due  the 
noted  value  of  silage.  As  we,  during  winter,  would 


277 


278  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

rather  eat  an  apple  that  has  been  stored  away  in  the 
cellar  than  a  dried  one,  so  live  stock  relish,  in  the 
same  degree,  the  corn  plant  if  kept  as  nearly  in  the 
green  state  as  possible.  No  matter  how  nutritious 
a  feeding  stuff  may  be,  if  the  animal  does  not  like  it, 
it  usually  is  a  failure  as  a  milk  or  a  meat  producer. 
Of  course,  no  one  claims  that  silage  contains  greater 
feeding  value  than  the  cured  product.  A  silo  has 
nothing  about  it  to  make  more  protein  or  carbohy- 
drates or  fat.  But  it  retains  the  juice,  the  flavor,  and 
also  the  effect  of  freshness  and  greenness  in  the 
silage  properly  stored  in  it. 

Economy  in  Silage. — There  is  a  great  economy  in 
silage,  in  the  fact  that  a  larger  part  of  the  product 
is  eaten  than  if  the  green  stuff  were  dried  for  fodder. 
If  the  dry  corn  plant  is  fed,  the  ear  and  the  leaves 
are  the  only  parts  consumed.  Fully  half  the  feed- 
ing value  is  lost.  If,  however,  this  be  put  in  the  silo, 
every  particle  is  eaten.  The  feeding  value  is  really 
doubled.  The  silo,  then,  assists  the  feeder  in  tak- 
ing care  of  a  larger  number  of  animals  from  a  given 
area  than  otherwise  would  be  possible  if  only  the 
dry  product  were  fed. 

Another  point  in  economy  lies  in  the  storage  of 
the  feeding  stuff.  A  silo  is  cheaply  constructed  and 
holds  an  immense  quantity  of  forage  that  is  always 
at  hand  where  feeding  is  to  be  done.  Thus  the  labor 
for  winter  feeding  is  materially  lessened.  Wherever 
high-class  beef  animals  are  raised  or  profitable  dairy- 
ing carried  on,  there  the  silo  is  found  and  its  highest 
and  best  uses  employed. 

Capacity  of  Silos. — The  following  table,  by  King, 


THE   SILO   AND   SILAGE 


279 


gives  the  capacity  of  round  silos  at  various  depths 
and  with  varying  inside  diameters : 


Inside  diameter  in  feet 

Feet  depth 

15 

18 

20 

25 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

20 

58.8 

84.7 

104.6 

163.4 

21 

62.9 

90.6 

111.8 

174.7 

22 

67.4 

96.8 

119.6 

186.8 

23 

71.7 

103.3 

127.5 

199.3 

24 

76.1 

109.6 

135.3 

211.5 

25 

80.6 

116.1 

143.3 

223.9 

26 

85.5 

123.0 

151.9 

237.4 

27 

90.2 

129.8 

159.3 

250.5 

28 

95.0 

136.8 

168.9 

263.9 

29 

99.9 

143.9 

177.6 

277.6 

30 

105.0 

151.1 

186.6 

291.6 

31 

109.8 

158.2 

195.6 

305.1 

32 

115.1 

165.7 

204.6 

319.6 

Corn  the  Best  Silage  Crop. — Silage  is  pre-emi- 
nently adapted  to  dairy  cows,  and  is  frequently  used 
for  sheep  and  other  farm  animals.  In  planning  a 
silo,  figure  on  removing  at  least  il/2  inches  of  the 
silage  surface  each  day  in  order  to  prevent  loss  from 
spoiling.  From  30  to  40  pounds  of  silage  a  day, 
combined  with  hay  and  grain,  is  considered  by  most 
dairymen  as  a  satisfactory  ration  for  dairy  cows. 

Essentials  of  a  Good  Silo. — First,  it  must  be  made 
deep  in  order  that  the  silage  may  pack  down  solidly. 
There  should  be  a  depth  of  at  least  24  feet.  Satis- 
factory silos,  however,  may  be  built  with  a  depth 
of  only  20  feet,  or  even  less.  Second,  the  walls 
should  be  made  vertical  and  perfectly  smooth,  so 
the  silage  may  rest  evenly  on  all  sides. 

There  should  be  as  few  corners  as  possible,  since 


280  FEEDING  FARM   ANIMALS 

the  greatest  loss  occurs  from  spoiling  in  corners. 
Third,  square,  wooden  silos  should  have  the  corners 
boarded  across,  and  the  inside  sheathing  should  run 
perpendicular  at  the  bottom.  Fourth,  the  inside 
walls  of  stone,  brick  or  cement  silos  should  have  a  final 
dressing  of  portland  cement.  Fifth,  the  silo  should  be 
located  where  it  will  be  most  convenient  to  feed  from. 


HARVESTING  THE  SILAGE  CORN 

Following  the  corn  harvester  come  the  wagons  to  haul  the  green  corn  to 
the  cutters. 

Calculating  Size  of  Silo. — The  size  of  the  silo  to 
build  may  be  determined  in  any  particular  case  from 
the  following  data :  A  cubic  foot  of  well-packed  sil- 
age will  weigh  on  the  average  between  35  and  40 
pounds.  This  is  about  the  amount  that  should  be 
fed  daily  to  a  dairy  cow.  If  it  is  necessary  to  feed 
cows  for  six  months,  180  days,  one  cow  will  con- 
sume 180  cubic  feet,  or  about  3^  tons  of  silage.  A 
herd  of  10  cows  would  consume  35  tons.  However, 
there  is  always  some  loss  by  spoiling  and  waste,  so 
it  is  better  to  figure  on  about  40  tons. 


THE   SILO  AND   SILAGE  28 1 

One  acre  of  corn  should  yield  10  to  15  tons  of  sil- 
age. The  number  of  tons  of  silage  that  a  square 
or  a  rectangular  silo  will  hold  may  be  determined 
roughly  by  multiplying  the  length,  width  and  depth 
of  the  silo  in  feet,  and  dividing  by  50,  the  approxi- 
mate number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  ton  of  silage.  A 
round  silo  15  feet  in  diameter  and  20  feet  deep  will 
hold  about  60  tons.  The  same  silo  25  feet  deep  will 
hold  80  tons.  A  round  silo  20  feet  in  diameter  and 
25  feet  deep  will  hold  a  little  more  than  140  tons. 

Filling  the  Silo. — Nowadays  the  corn  binder  is 
desirable  for  cutting  silage  corn.  It  saves  the  ex- 
pense of  several  men  and  makes  loading  and  unload- 
ing more  economical  and  less  fatiguing  and  irksome 
than  the  old  method.  One  man  with  a  low  wagon 
and  a  rack  can  in  a  few  minutes  secure  his  load,  all 
that  a  two  or  a  three-horse  team  can  draw.  It  is 
most  convenient  to  take  two  or  three  rows  at  a  time. 
It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  the  binder  be  at  work 
for  some  time  in  order  that  the  hauling  and  the 
cutting  crews  may  not  be  delayed  for  want  of  corn. 

The  work  in  the  silo,  however,  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  operations  connected  with  silage  making. 
Really  good  silage  depends  largely  upon  the  faith- 
fulness, constant  tramping  and  the  "everlastingly  at 
it"  of  the  man  in  the  silo.  Let  him  shirk,  or  do  his 
work  poorly,  and  he  will  get  less  corn  in  the  silo  and 
poorer  quality  in  the  product.  Many  of  the  criti- 
cisms directed  against  the  silo  belong,  not  to  it,  but 
to  the  man  within.  He  was  either  lazy  and  irre- 
sponsible, did  not  know  what  was  expected  of  him 
or  how  to  do  what  was  required  of  him. 


282  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

This  part  of  silage  making  is  of  such  great  impor- 
tance that  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  close  attention. 
Thoroughly  and  continually  to  pack  the  silage  as 
fast  as  it  falls  into  the  silo  and  to  pitch  and  tramp 
it  all  about  the  outer  edges  is  the  secret  of  making 
good  silage.  Look  after  the  packing  well  at  the 
outside,  and  the  center  will  take  care  of  itself.  It 
is  this  thorough  packing  that  rids  the  silo  of  air  spaces 
around  which  decay  later  is  found  to  have  taken  place. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  pack  the  square  than  the 
round  silo.  Hence  the  least  carelessness  here  repre- 
sents some  loss  in  winter.  In  doing  effective  pack- 
ing, keep  the  outer  edges  a  little  higher  than  the 
center,  but  keep  tramping  and  packing  all  the  time. 
This  will  force  the  air  out  as  the  filling  process  goes  on. 

Feeding  Silage. — The  quantity  of  silage  fed  de- 
pends somewhat  on  the  kind  of  forage  used.  Silage 
made  of  clover,  cowpeas  or  alfalfa  contains  more 
protein  than  that  made  of  corn.  If  either  of  the 
former  be  used,  from  15  to  20  pounds  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  a  daily  feed.  On  the  other  hand,  if  corn 
is  used,  from  25  to  50  pounds  can  be  fed,  30  to  40 
pounds  being  a  good  average.  Silage  can  be  fed 
once  or  twice  each  day.  If  a  small  quantity  is  used 
in  the  daily  ration,  the  feeder  should  give  silage  but 
once ;  a  larger  quantity  will  require  two  feedings. 
The  feeding  should  be  regular ;  that  is,  every  day, 
so  as  to  keep  the  top  of  the  silo  fed  off  to  prevent 
spoiling.  One  or  2  inches  from  the  whole  of  the 
top  will  prevent  any  decay. 

Feeding  Silage  After  Milking. — Silage  should  not 
be  fed  during  milking,  but  always  afterward.  When 


THE   SILO   AND   SILAGE 


the  cows  have  finished  eating,  the  silage  that  re- 
mains should  be  cleaned  up  and  removed  from  the 
barn.  This  will  prevent  the  possibility  of  having 
silage  decay  in  the  mangers.  The  present  objection 
to  silage  milk,  as  it  is  termed,  comes  from  the  sloven- 
liness of  those  who  permit  the  silage  to  remain  in 
the  barn  and  decay.  If  cleanliness  is  observed,  and 
the  silage  has  been  taken  care  of  properly,  the  milk 
will  be  free  from  the  silage  taint.  The  odor  of  sil- 
age put  up  when  the  ears  are  in  milk  is  much 
stronger  than  that  of  silage  put  up  just  after  the 
ear  has  glazed  and  hardened. 

Crops  for  Silage. — There  are  only  a  few  crops  that 
can  be  successfully  used  for  silage.  The  great  silo 
crop  is  corn.  Clover  is  also  ensiled  with  a  fair  de- 
gree of  success.  Soy  beans  mixed  with  corn  are 
also  good,  and  alfalfa  to  some  extent.  Plants  which 
have  hollow  stems  generally  make  poor  silage  be- 
cause of  the  air  stored  with  the  crop.  There  is  also 
little  reason  for  using  crops  that  are  easily  cured  in 
the  field,  like  the  grasses  and  hays. 


DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   IN   IMPORTANT  SILAGE   CROPS 


Digestible 

nutrients  in  100 

pounds 

Feeding  stuff 

Dry  matter 
in 
100  pounds 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Corn  silage    .  . 
Clover    .          .  . 

20.9 
28  0 

0.9 
2  0 

11.3 
.     13.5 

0.7 
1.0 

Alfalfa    ...      . 
Cowpea    . 

27.5 
20  7 

3.0 
1  5 

8.5 
8.6 

1.9 
0.9 

Soy  bean  

25.8 

2.7 

8.7 

1.3 

284  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Cutting  Corn  for  Silage. — The  composition  of 
corn  undergo.es  rapid  changes  from  the  tasseling  period 
until  maturity.  The  dry  matter  shows  an  increase 
from  the  time  the  corn  is  in  tassel  until  the  kernels 
are  dented.  Tasseled  corn  has  only  one-fifth  as 
much  dry  matter  as  mature  corn.  It  is  owing  to 
such  changes  that  corn  must  be  cut  at  the  proper 
stage  if  it  is  to  make  the  best  silage.  If  cut  too 
green,  the  silage  will  sour  more  easily,  and  will  not 
possess  the  fullest  food  value.  Immature  corn  is 
often  the  cause  of  the  complaints  that  silage  makes 
undesirable  milk.  If  cut  too  ripe,  the  desired  succu- 
lence is  lost.  The  proper  stage  for  cutting  is  when 
the  lower  leaves  have  commenced  to  fire  and  brown, 
yet  when  the  greater  part  of  the  leaves  are  still 
green.  The  kernels  should  be  out  of  the  milk  stage 
and  dented  and  hardened. 

Cost  of  Making  Silage. — The  following  figures  as 
to  cost  of  making  silage  have  been  set  forth  by  the 
Nebraska  station : 

COST    OF  GROWING 

Rent  of  land   $4.50 

Plowing-  and  harrowing   2.00 

Seed  corn    0.25 

Planting    0.30 

Harrowing  and  cultivating 2.25 

Total   per   acre    $9.30 

Average  yield,  tons  an  acre $13.00 

Cost  per  ton  to  grow   0.72 

COST    OF    FILLING    SILO 

Eleven  men  at  $2  a  day $22.00 

Seven  teams  at  $2.25  a  day   16.75 

One  traction  engine  a  day 7.50 

Engineer   2.50 

Coal    3.00 

Board  for  men   6.00 

Total    $56.75 

Silage   cut  per   day,    75    tons;    cost  to   put   in   silo 

per  ton    $0.75 


THE   SILO   AND   SILAGE  285 


INTEREST   AND    DEPRECIATION 

Interest  on  money  invested  in  silo   $25.00 

Interest  on  money  invested  in  machinery 12.00 

Depreciation  and  repairs  on  silo  and  machinery  per  year  30.00 

Taxes  and  insurance 6.00 

Interest  and  depreciation  per  ton 0.48 

SUMMARY    PER    TON 

Cost  of  growing $0.72 

Cost  of  putting  in  silo   0.75 

Interest  and  depreciation    0.48 


Total  cost  of  corn  silage  per  ton   $1.95 

BUILDING  THE  SILO 

Many  Kinds  of  Material  are  available  for  con- 
struction, but  more  silos  are  built  of  wooden  staves 
than  of  anything  else.  Wooden  stave  silos  have  the 
advantage  of  lower  first  cost,  of  being  easily  and 
quickly  erected  by  the  ordinary  help  available  and 
of  being  taken  down  and  moved  if  necessary. 

The  round  silo  is  practically  the  only  style  now 
erected,  and  is  generally  put  up  outside  the  barn, 
although  in  round  barns  it  may  well  be  built  in  the 
center.  After  much  experimenting  farmers  and  silo 
manufacturers  have  almost  unanimously  settled  on 
the  use  of  staves  2x6  inches  in  size,  tongued, 
grooved  and  planed  on  one  or  both  sides.  If  prop- 
erly taken  care  of  the  wooden  stave  silo,  built  of 
good  material,  will  last  a  great  many  years.  Should 
a  weak  stave  develop,  it  is  not  a  difficult  or  an  ex- 
pensive matter  to  replace  it. 

Get  a  Solid  Foundation. — The  success  of  any  silo 
depends  on  a  firm,  solid  foundation.  For  this  pur- 
pose, concrete  or  concrete  and  stone  are  commonly 
used.  The  foundation  needs  to  be  so  well  built  that 
it  will  neither  crack  nor  settle.  The  silo  also  needs 


286 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


a  roof  which  will  help  to  strengthen  it  and  to  pro- 
tect the  contents  from  storm  and  frost. 

Whether  or  not  a  man  should  get  out  his  own  ma- 
terial for  a  silo  and  build  it  for  himself,  or  buy  it  of 
a  silo  manufacturer  depends  upon  how  good  a  me- 
chanic he  is.  A  man  who  is  not  handy  with  tools 
will  find  it  cheaper  and  better  to  buy  a  ready-made 


FILLING  THE  SILO 

Corn  should  be  well  matured  before  placed  in  the  silo.  With  this  should 
go  thorough  tramping.  The  silage  will  then  be  sweet,  substantial  and 
nutritious. 


silo,  for  he  will  then  have  one  that  is  built  in  a  scien- 
tific manner  of  good  material.  The  work  of  erecting 
a  wooden  stave  silo  is  not  difficult  if  a  good  car- 
penter with  a  little  ingenuity  be  employed. 

Other  Types  of  Silos. — Concrete  has  been  used  to 
some  extent  for  silo  building,  either  in  the  form  of 
blocks  or  to  make  solid  monolithic  walls.  Concrete 


THE    SILO   AND    SILAGE 


silos  cost  more  than  stave  silos,  but  are  virtually  in- 
destructible if  built  of  good  material  under  compe- 
tent supervision,  and  well  reinforced.  Many  failures 
come  from  neglect  of  one  or  more  of  these  points. 
Then  the  loss  is  practically  total,  as  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  repair  a  cracked  or  a  broken  concrete  struc- 
ture. 


CONCRETE  SILOS 

These  are  more  costly  than  those  made  of  wooden  staves,  but  they  practi- 
cally last  forever. 

Brick  has  been  used  to  some  extent  for  silos,  and 
with  good  success.  Expert  help  is  needed  to  erect 
them.  Unless  brick  can  be  obtained  at  a  low  price, 
their  cost  is  almost  prohibitive.  The  first  brick  silos 
were  put  u{3  of  several  thicknesses  of  brick,  in  some 
cases  the  walls  being  20  inches  thick,  but  of  late 
years  two  courses  of  brick,  well  reinforced,  have 
been  found  sufficient. 


288  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Hollow  Clay  Blocks. — The  latest  development 
consists  of  the  use  of  hollow  clay  building  blocks. 
These  are  easily  erected  by  an  expert  mason,  and 
are  successful  if  properly  reinforced  by  wire  be- 
tween the  various  courses  of  tile.  Being  built  of  hol- 
low tile,  there  is  less  freezing  of  the  silage  on  the 
inside  than  where  the  walls  are  made  of  brick  or 
solid  concrete.  The  freezing,  however,  is  generally 
of  little  importance. 

Not  every  farmer  needs  a  silo,  but  every  farmer 
who  keeps  a  herd  of  six  or  more  cows,  dairy  or  beef, 
or  50  sheep,  will  find  the  silo  a  profitable  addition  to 
his  farm  equipment.  More  feed  can  be  obtained 
from  an  acre  of  corn  saved  in  the  silo  than  in  any 
other  way.  It  is  possible  to  make  more  and  cheaper 
milk,  beef  and  mutton  by  feeding  silage  than  with- 
out it. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  SOILING  SYSTEM 

Farm  animals  relish  succulent  feeds.  They  give 
the  best  account  of  themselves  when  abundantly 
supplied  with  pastures  or  roots  or  green  crops. 
This  is  true,  not  only  of  cattle,  but  of  hogs,  sheep, 
swine  and  poultry.  Animal  life  has  been  so  long 
adjusted  to  succulence  and  vegetable  juices  that  to 
withhold  these  for  any  length  of  time  is  to  invite 
loss  along  all  lines  of  production ;  animals  do  not 
thrive  well  when  these  are  withheld. 

When  spring  comes  with  its  rejuvenating  influ- 
ences manifested  in  all  directions,  farm  stock  eagerly 
leave  dry  foods,  however  rich  in  nutrition  they  may 
be,  and  revel  in  the  green  grasses  along  the  roadside 
or  in  the  pasture  field.  You  are  familiar  with  the 
result — better  quality,  more  thrifty  growth,  more 
meat,  more  milk. 

Taking  the  year  all  around,  good  pastures  are  not 
available  for  any  great  length  of  time ;  hence,  where 
well-bred  farm  animals  are  appreciated,  an  impor- 
tant problem  in  farm  management  arises  as  to  the 
best  method  of  extending  the  pasture  season  as  long 
as  possible.  Succulent  foods  may  be  provided  by 
pasture,  soiling  crops,  silage  and  root  crops.  They 
may  be  just  a  bit  inferior  to  May  and  June  grazing, 
but  as  substitutes  they  satisfactorily  fill  the  bill. 
Good  silage,  after  all,  is  but  slightly  inferior  to  green 

289 


290 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


corn.    Soiling  crops  are  next  best  to  grasses;  and 
roots,  for  fall  and  winter,  are  not  to  be  despised. 

Good  Pastures  Always  Popular. — The  testimony 
of  dairymen  is  undeniably  and  emphatically  in  favor 
of  silage,  soiling  crops  and  similar  feeds  to  take 
the  place  of  pasture,  because  they  keep  the  milk 
yield  constant.  Some  even  claim  that  these  feeds 
are  in  every  way  equal  to  rich  pastures.  Where 
lands  are  high  in  value  and  limited  in  quantity,  soil- 


HAULING  SOILING  CROPS  TO  THE  BARN 

Where  the  soiling  system  is  followed  cows  are  fed  in  their  stalls.  Less 
land  is  needed  and  no  forage  is  destroyed  by  tramping.  The  labor  on  the 
other  hand  is  increased. 

ing  crops  often  displace  the  pasture  system.  Some 
who  follow  the  practice  claim  that  it  is  even  more 
satisfactory  and  far  less  costly.  Roots,  even  for  the 
dairy,  but  especially  for  all  breeding  stock,  are  in- 
dispensable. Horses  without  carrots,  sheep  without 
turnips,  Hamlet  without  the  ghost! 


THE   SOILING   SYSTEM  29 1 

Pastures  will,  no  doubt,  long  remain  important 
in  all  sections  where  live  stock  are  grown.  Though 
it  is  true  that  the  pasture  system  calls  for  at  least 
twice  the  number  of  acres  that  are  necessary  where 
the  soiling  system  is  followed,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  with  pastures,  less  labor  is  required,  less 
attention  is  needed  for  looking  after  the  stock,  and 
the  items  of  detail,  incidental  to  soiling,  do  not 
arise. 

For  these  reasons  permanent  pastures  are  to  be 
desired ;  in  fact,  they  should  be  increased  and  made 
better.  Where  lands  are  exceptionally  high  in  value, 
the  reason  for  the  soiling  system  becomes  manifest 
at  once ;  but  where  lands  are  cheap,  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  the  pasture  should  not  be  employed  in  the 
cheap  production  of  pork  or  beef,  or  why  it  should  not 
enter  very  largely  into  the  production  of  dairy  products. 

Good  permanent  pastures  are  worthy  of  more 
attention  than  they  have  received.  If  they 
have  not  done  their  work  well,  it  is  because  their 
owners  have  given  them  too  little  attention.  To 
merit  praise  they  must  give  much  grazing  and  con- 
stant grazing.  The  temporary  pasture  occurs  only 
as  a  feature  of  short  rotations,  as  when  grain  crops 
are  raised.  It  is  really  an  incident  rather  than  a 
first  consideration ;  being  such,  development  of 
grass  and  turf,  both  of  which  are  basic  features  of 
the  permanent  pasture,  is  not  expected. 

Rape  Supplements  Pastures. — On  the  other  hand, 
poor  pasture  fields  may  be  supported  by  the  use  of 
supplementary  crops,  foremost  among  which  is  rape 
— an  admirable  food  for  sheep  and  swine  and  val- 


FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

* 


uable  for  cattle  also.  Rape  is  a  sort  of  cabbage, 
which,  instead  of  storing  its  nutriment  in  the  head 
as  the  cabbage  does,  distributes  its  nutriment 
throughout  the  leaves.  It  fancies  most  the  moist, 
cool  places  and  a  rather  fertile  soil.  When  so  fav- 
ored it  really  gives  a  very  large  amount  of  food.  It 
is  sufficiently  rich  in  nutriment  to  maintain  all  body 
needs,  but  is  not  quite  able  of  itself  to  make  large 
gains  of  growth  or  fat.  When  supplemented  with 
grain,  it  becomes  a  very  satisfactory  green  fodder  crop. 


WHEAT  A  GOOD  SOILING  CROP 

The  plot  at  the  left  made  4.6  tons  to  the  acre.  The  plot  at  the  right  had  been 
given  an  application  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  produced  Tl/2   tons  to  the  acre. 

Rape  may  be  sown  any  time  between  March  and 
July,  either  broadcast  or  in  drills  3  feet  apart,  using 
three  or  four  pounds  of  slightly  covered  seed  an 
acre.  When  grazed  down,  remove  the  stock  and 
allow  time  enough  for  a  second  crop. 

Soiling  Crops  in  Favor. — Within  recent  years  the 
use  of  soiling  crops  has  increased.  The  unsatisfac- 
tory results  from  pastures  during  the  late  summer 


THE   SOILING   SYSTEM  293 

months,  especially  for  dairy  cows,  have  given  popu- 
larity to  the  soiling  system.  Employed  in  connec- 
tion with  the  silo,  it  is  possible  to  get  the  effect  of 
green  crops  throughout  the  year. 

Briefly,  the  plan  means  that  instead  of  depending 
upon  pastures,  fodder  is  cut  green  and  fed  to  cattle 


ALFALFA  THE  BEST  SOILING  CROP 

From  early  spring  until  frost  this  queen   of  the  crops  is  available  for  all 
kinds  of  feed. 


in  the  feed  lot  or  in  the  stable,  thus  doing  away 
with  fences  and  extensive  areas,  such  as  are  neces- 
sary with  pastures.  There  is  a  saving,  because  no 
part  of  the  forage  is  tramped  on  or  destroyed  by 
animals  running  at  large  over  the  fields.  The  small 
area  given  to  soiling  crops  allows  more  intensive 
tillage,  better  fertilizing  and  more  thorough  cultiva- 
tion than  does  the  pasture  system.  The  soiling  sys- 
tem is  favored  because  it  is  extremely  valuable, 


294  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

even  where  pastures  are  much  in  use.  Rye,  peas, 
oats,  and  green  corn  always  come  in  handy;  and 
they  often  bridge  over  dry  periods  when  pastures 
are  either  short  or  are  dry  and  withered. 

Soiling  Crops  Have  a  Place. — Starting  with  soil- 
ing crops  in  order  of  their  use,  we  have  rye  as  the 
first  aid.  In  the  South  it  is  ready  in  March  and  in 
the  North  in  April.  It  should  be  seeded  in  August 
or  September  in  the  North,  and  in  September  or 
October  in  the  South.  When  thus  planted  it  is 
ready  early  in  the  spring,  long  before  ordinary  pastures 
are  available,  or  before  clover  or  wheat  can  be  used. 

Alfalfa  Ranks  First. — Alfalfa  is  the  premier  soil- 
ing crop.  After  alfalfa  come  peas,  sorghum,  corn 
and  other  green  crops.  The  oats  and  peas  should 
go  in  early.  Cover  the  peas  3  or  4  inches  deep,  one 
bushel  to  the  acre ;  the  oats  a  less  depth  and  about 
two  bushels  to  the  acre.  Inasmuch  as  oats  fancy 
the  cool  seasons  rather  than  the  warm  weather,  the 
earlier  they  are  seeded  in  the  spring,  the  better. 
Field  peas  also  withstand  a  surprisingly  large 
amount  of  cold  weather.  Cowpeas  and  sorghum  are 
warm  weather  crops,  and  should  go  in  after  corn. 

Green  Corn  for  Summer. — Corn  is  an  all-farm- 
purpose  crop.  It  is  advisable  to  have  a  couple  or 
more  acres  of  corn  as  a  reserve  crop  for  late  sum- 
mer feeding.  Every  animal  on  the  farm  relishes  a 
few  stalks  of  green  corn  at  night  or  morning  when 
the  pastures  are  dry  and  hot.  The  soil  for  soiling 
corn  should  be  light  and  warm  to  insure  early  plant- 
ing. After  being  well  tilled  and  fertilized,  put  in  the 
corn.  Plant  in  rows  3^2  to  4  feet  apart,  dropping 


THE   SOILING   SYSTEM 


295 


grains  3  or  4  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Give  this 
corn  the  same  cultivation  and  care  as  later  you  will 
give  to  your  regular  crop.  In  any  section,  by  the 


BARNYARD  MILLET  A  HEAVY  YIELDER 

The  millets  are  all  good  forage  crops,  but  Japanese  barnyard  millet  is  an  ex- 
ceptionally profitable  variety.    The  yield  here  is  15  tons  to  the  acre. 

latter  part  of  June  or  early  in  July  you  will  have  on 
hand  a  lot  of  green  forage  to  help  along  in  case  your 
pastures  go  back  on  you. 


296  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

If  this  green  fodder  is  not  needed  in  early  summer, 
just  let  it  alone;  it  will. continue  its  growing  and 
will  make  a  still  heavier  crop.  With  it  at  hand  you 
need  have  no  fear  of  a  shrinkage  in  milk,  because 
a  few  armfuls  of  this  green  corn  as  a  feed,  used  as  a 
supplement  to  the  pasture  or  the  silage  or  other 
food,  will  complete  the  ration  and  supply  your  stock 
with  just  what  is  needed.  The  patch  of  corn,  its 
size  depending  upon  the  number  of  animals  you 
have,  will  carry  you  until  the  silage  crop  is  ready, 
or  if  you  do  not  have  the  silo,  carry  you  into  the  fall 
season,  when  your  winter  plans  for  feeding  will 
handle  the  case. 

Root  Crops  Not  to  Be  Left  Out. — Roots  receive 
too  little  attention  by  farmers,  but  they  are  worthy 
of  some  attention,  for  they  stand  high  as  succulent 
and  supplementary  feeds.  Roots  cannot  be  valued 
solely  by  the  nutriment  they  contain.  They  aid  in 
digestion  and  assimilation  of  dry  foods  and  con- 
tribute to  the  healthfulness  of  all  animals  so  fortu- 
nate as  to  get  them.  If  fruits  are  of  value,  if  not  a 
necessity,  to  men,  then  roots  and  grasses  have  a 
place  in  feeding  farm  animals. 

Carrots  may  be  fed  to  horses  and  sheep,  sugar 
beets  and  turnips  to  dry  cattle,  lambs  and  dairy  cat- 
tle; all  three  are  relished  by  hogs.  To  withhold 
succulence,  Nature's  great  provision  of  thrift  and 
health,  is  to  lessen  profits.  Ask  the  men  who  use 
these  crops ;  the  horse  breeder  where  carrots  are 
known ;  the  shepherd  who  knows  his  sheep  and  suc- 
ceeds with  them ;  the  cattle  breeder  who  has  learned 
of  the  value  of  roots  for  health  and  appetite.  The 


THE   SOILING   SYSTEM 


testimony  as  given  is  generally  in  favor  of  roots 
or  of  succulent  substitutes. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  SOILING 

Smaller  Area  Needed.  —  Where  pasturing  is  fol- 
lowed, from  two  to  five  acres  are  required  for  fur- 
nishing necessary  feeding  stuffs  for  each  animal  a 


CROP  OF  COWPEAS   AND  KAFIR  CORN 

This  combination  makes  a  splendid  soiling  crop.     The  yield  in  this  instance 
was  13  tons  to  the  acre. 

year.  It  is  generally  conceded  by  all  who  have  fol- 
lowed soiling  that  three-quarters  to  an  acre  and  a 
half  will  furnish  the  yearly  food  supply  for  a  mature 
animal. 

Fewer  Fences  Needed. — The  only  fences  needed 
with  soiling  are  for  the  feed  lots.  This  is  a  saving  of 
land  where  fences  would  be  put,  a  saving  of  capital 
otherwise  invested  in  fences,  and  a  saving  in  labor 
in  keeping  fences  clean  and  repaired. 


298  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Food  Destroyed  by  Tramping. — The  tramp- 
ing of  cattle  over  pasture  lands  not  only  destroys 
considerable  food,  but  it  compacts  the  soil,  espe- 
cially during  wet  weather,  and  greatly  damages  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil.  As  much  as  a  third 
or  a  half  of  the  pastures  are  injured  by  tramping. 

Less  Acreage  Required. — If  one  lives  near  a  city 
where  lands  are  highly  valuable,  the  investment  in 
acres  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance.  The 
practice  of  soiling  enables  the  dairyman  to  do  on 
half  the  number  of  acres  what  would  be  required  if 
pasturing  were  followed. 

Soil  Improvement  More  Readily  Obtained. — 
Since  one  needs  but  half  the  area  by  following  soil- 
ing methods  that  pasture  systems  require,  a  larger 
quantity  of  manure  may  be  secured  by  this  system. 
This  means  farming  in  an  intensive  way  and  insures 
greater  productivity  of  land  and  larger  crops  with 
each  successive  year. 

OBJECTIONS  TO  THE  PRACTICE  OF 
SOILING 

The  one  objection  to  soiling  is  in  the  extra  labor 
in  growing  and  feeding  the  crops.  By  pasturing, 
labor  is  needed  only  in  taking  cattle  to  and  from 
the  pasture  fields.  The  necessary  extra  labor  con- 
nected with  the  soiling  system  is,  however,  a  matter 
of  small  importance  when  considered  in  the  light  of 
the  many  advantages. 

Soiling  Best  Adapted  to  Dairying. — While  soil- 
ing is  possible  for  all  classes  of  live  stock,  it  is  pecul- 


THE   SOILING   SYSTEM 


299 


iarly  a  system  for  the  dairy  farmer.  The  food  is  bet- 
ter because  of  freshness  and  succulence ;  labor  is 
always  available;  and  the  greater  profits  permit 
greater  care  and  attention  that  the  highest  success 
may  be  attained. 


CRIMSON  CLOVER  FOR  SOILING 

This  admirable  crop  is  a  great  soil  improver  and  winter  cover  crop.  It 
matures  early  in  the  spring  and  may  be  pastured,  cut  for  hay,  or  fed  green 
in  the  stable. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  SOILING  SCHEME 

Among  the  best  soiling  crops  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  Peas  and  oats,  rye,  alfalfa,  clover, 
vetch  and  wheat,  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  corn,  millet, 
sorghum,  and  rape.  On  some  farms  green  crops  are 
fed  throughout  the  season.  In  a  general  way  the 
practice  includes  the  rotation  somewhat  as  follows, 


3<DO  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

with  substitutes  in  certain  cases  where  the  season 
has  unfavorably  influenced  the  usual  order  or  makes 
possible  the  use  of  some  local  crop : 

a.  Winter  rye,  or  wheat,  to  be  cut  in  May. 

b.  Green  alfalfa,  to  be  used  at  any  time. 

c.  Green  clover,  cut  and  fed  in  June. 

d.  Peas  and  oats,  sown  early  in  spring,  with  a 

succession  at  two  or  three  intervals. 

e.  Corn  or  sorghum,  planted  as  early  as  possible, 

to  be  used  during  July  and  August. 

f.  Millet,  planted  in  June  or  early  July  and  fed  in 

August. 

g.  The  land  from  which  the  peas  and  oats  and 

early  corn  are  removed   may   be   seeded   to 

millet  for  August  feeding. 

Some  Special  Rotations. — Following  are  given 
several  rotations  that  have  been  in  use  in  various 
sections : 


THE   SOILING   SYSTEM 


301 


ssssss 


2   222-2   222222 


(DIDO)      o>      <i)      0     <u 


a>a)aj<uo)a)     0) 
oooooo     o 


00  ,£50000  ^ 

III    I   1   1   1    I  I 

w      to 
5?      55 


O 

h 
U)^ 

>  c 


O       O       cj 
0 
"O      'O 

c     c    -a 


t  -§ 

+->    •*->     as 


aS     -5-2 
0       gg 


302 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


Approximate  time 
of  feeding 


Approxima 
time  of 
seeding 


o  o  o 
aj  c^  a} 
a?  a)  <B 


coco 
O  O 

J"M^     553 


THE   SOILING  SYSTEM 


303 


|S 

0<H 
ft° 


C  s-. 

3  Q, 

O  » 

a 


OU3U3        ,_| 


5-0 


304 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


Degree 
maturi 


bCbO 

•S.5 


e  B|23J22 


3       w3 
- 


S£ 


^ 

U50       l«  V^R 
MW>AMm«JlO 

lA  IA  ^  >A  10  ° 


me  for 
wing 


•s 

II 


THE    SOILING   SYSTEM 


305 


•§§:: 

o  ca  +}  I  .' 


31 

.** 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
RELATION  OF  FOOD  TO  MANURE 

Quality  of  Manure. — On  many  farms  manure  is 
measured  by  its  quantity  rather  than  by  its  quality. 
In  open  barnyards  it  is  left  to  accumulate,  often  for 


EITHER  Too  MUCH  OR  Too  LITTLE 

When  manure  is  put  in  small  piles  it  is  generally  unevenly  distributed.  If 
not  immediately  spread  the  soluble  parts  sink  into  the  ground  under  the 
piles,  thus  over-enriching  these  spots.  The  greater  part  of  the  soil  area 
gets  only  the  manure  debris. 


a  year  or  more ;  and  exposed  to  rain  and  weather  it 
decomposes,  and  wastes  away,  or  is  lost  in  rich 
streams  of  colored  liquid  to  brooks  and  creeks. 
When  so  handled  the  cream  of  its  value  escapes  from 

306 


RELATION    OF    FOOD   TO    MANURE 


397 


the  farm,  leaving  only  the  debris  and  coarser  parts 
for  the  fields  and  vegetation.  The  evil  of  this  way 
of  preserving  manure  more  and  more  is  becoming 
apparent  and  a  change  in  this  respect  ought  to  be 
more  commonly  set  in  motion  in  the  future. 

But  there  is  still  too  little  attention  given  the 
production  of  manure  from  the  standpoint  of  qual- 
ity. Many  farmers  give  little  thought  to  food  in 
relation  to  the  resulting  manure.  They  seem  to 
think  that  manure  is  just  manure,  and  that  one  kind 
of  food  is  about  as  good  as  another  for  producing  it. 
When  purchasing  a  feeding  stuff  its  fertilizing  value 
is  usually  ignored  when,  in  fact,  this  matter  should 
be  weighed  as  carefully  as  are  the  food  nutrients 
contained  in  it.  Take  two  feeds  like  corn  and  cot- 
tonseed meal.  Both  may  be  and  are  used  exten- 
sively in  the  feeding  of  cattle.  In  many  tests  the 
latter  has  shown  its  superiority  both  for  beef  and  the 
dairy.  The  comparison  is  incomplete,  however,  if 
the  fertilizing  values  are  not  compared  also. 
has  been  done  in  the  following  table : 

CORN  AND  COTTONSEED  MEAL  COMPARED 


Feed 

In  1   ton  of  product 

Value 

$   6.55 

27.82 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 

Potash 

Corn     . 

33.0 
145.0 

14.2 
60.8 

11.4 
31.6 

Cottonseed    meal 

From  this  we  see  that,  allowing  16  cents  a  pound 
for  nitrogen  and  5  cents  each  for  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash,  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  cottonseed 


308  FEEDING  FARM   ANIMALS 

meal  is  $27.82,  while  of  corn  it  is  but  $6.56,  or  one- 
fourth  as  much.  To  the  man  who  is  obliged  to  buy 
either  corn  or  cottonseed  meal  this  should  be  con- 
clusive that  it  is  in  his  interest,  both  from  the  stand- 
point of  feed  and  of  manure,  to  purchase  the  cotton- 
seed meal. 

Value  of  Farm  Manures. — The  character  of  the 
food  determines  the  value  of  manure.  The  animal 
can  add  nothing.  In  the  undigested  portions  the 
fertilizing  materials  are  voided,  while  of  that  ab- 
sorbed into  the  system,  such  amounts  are  appropri- 
ated as  are  needed.  In  case  of  animals  neither  gain- 
ing nor  losing  in  weight — for  instance,  farm  horses 
that  just  hold  their  own — as  much  fertilizer  mate- 
rials are  returned  in  solid  and  liquid  excrement  as 
are  taken  in  the  food  from  day  to  day.  In  this  case, 
if  the  manure  is  wholly  returned  to  the  land,  the 
entire  food  supply  serves  as  fertilizing  material. 

Young  and  growing  animals  and  those  furnishing 
wool  or  milk,  retain  considerable  amounts  of  the 
nitrogen  and  the  ash  constituents.  Fattening  ani- 
mals that  are  nearly  mature  retain  but  small 
amounts  of  nitrogen  and  ash.  These  facts  are  in 
dicated  in  the  table  by  Warrington  given  on  th< 
next  page. 

The  amount  of  ash  constituents  of  the  food  stored 
up  in  the  body  is  very  small.  As  seen  in  the  table, 
fattening  oxen  retain  but  2.3  per  cent,  fattening 
sheep  3.8  per  cent,  and  fattening  pigs  4  per  cent. 
Milk  cows  retain  more;  this  is  to  be  found  in  the 
milk.  The  young  calf  puts  into  bone  and  muscles 
over  one-half  of  the  ash  of  its  food.  As  for  nitro- 


RELATION   OF   FOOD   TO    MANURE 


309 


gen,  the  work  horse,  either  at  rest  or  at  work,  gives 
back  all,  fattening  oxen  and  sheep  retain  a  small 
amount,  fattening  hogs  a  larger  amount,  milk  cows 
keep  one-fourth,  and  the  young  calf  two-thirds. 
Nitrogen  is  voided  largely  as  urine. 

Double  Value  in  Feeds. — All  feeding  stuffs  have 
two    values — feed    and    fertility.     The    commercial 

NITROGEN  AND  ASH   IN   ANIMAL   PRODUCE,  AND  VOIDED, 
FOR    IOO  POUNDS   OF  FOOD   CONSUMED 


Nitrogen 

Ash  constituents 

c 

c 

la 

Kind  of  animal 

<v 

fl 

ts 

is 

*rt  S'^ 

C  rin 

t3 

o3  c| 

C  co 

'O  p 

"So* 

"is  * 

Sg 

O  (!) 

Jo* 

^2  0)'S 

S  *-  w 

oil 

t>  OJ  0) 

II 

C  X 

o|| 

III 

Horse  at  rest   .  . 

None 

43.0 

57.0 

100.0 

None 

100.0 

Horse  at  work  . 

None 

29.4 

70.6 

100.0 

— 

- 

Fattening  oxen 

3.9 

22.6 

73.5 

96.1 

2.3 

97.7 

Fattening    sheep 

4.3 

16.7 

79.0 

95.7 

3.8 

96.2 

Fattening   pigs 
Milk   cows    

14.7 
24.5 

21.0 
18.1 

64.3 
57.41 

85.3 
75.5 

4.0 

10.3 

96.0 
89.7 

Calf  on  milk 

69.3 

5.1 

25.6 

30.7 

54.3 

45.7 

value  in  most  instances  is  based  on  the  feeding  value 
as  compared  with  other  feeding  stuffs.  But  even 
so,  the  fertilizing  value  of  manure  resulting  must  be 
ignored  no  longer.  To  illustrate  the  meaning  of  the 
double  value  of  a  feed,  it  is  here  assumed  that  cot- 
tonseed meal  has  a  commercial  value  of  $27.82.  This 
is  the  first  or  fertilizing  value ;  and  since  by  feeding- 
it  valuable  food  products  are  made,  a  second  value  is 
possessed  by  it. 


3IO  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

It  has  been  observed  that  milk  cows  retain  24.5 
per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food.  Deducting, 
therefore,  one-fourth  of  this  to  meet  the  cost  of  the 
fertilizing  materials  extracted,  there  is  left  $20.87. 
In  other  words,  as  a  feed  the  cost  was  only  $6.95 
a  ton.  When  so  used  a  double  profit  is  secured  as 
follows : 

Value  as  a  fertilizer   $27.82 

Value  after  being  fed 20.87 

Total     $48.69 

Selling  Fertility. — The  man  who  buys  cottonseed 
meal  and  other  similar  feeding  stuffs  as  feed  gains 
by  the  enterprise,  but  the  men  who  produce  and  sell 
them,  lose.  By  disposing  of  these  valuable  food 
products  farmers  sell  the  plant  food  of  their  lands. 
When  sent  to  Europe  or  to  other  sections  there  is 
transferred  fertility  from  the  lands  producing  these 
crops  to  the  dairy  and  beef  farms  where  they  are 
consumed.  When  animal  products  are  sold  the 
drain  on  the  land  is  not  large,  but  if  grain  crops  are 
sold  much  plant  food  is  withdrawn  from  the  soil. 
This  will  be  seen  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

This  table  shows  that  grain  products  make  con- 
siderable demands  on  the  plant  food  supply  of  the 
soil,  'and  that  when  such  are  sold  much  more  fer- 
tility is  disposed  of  than  when  animal  products  are 
sold. 

The  farmer  who  sells  a  ton  of  clover  hay  with- 
draws from  his  soil  $8.72  worth  of  fertility.  This 
is  half  as  much  as  he  receives.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  sells  a  ton  of  pork,  he  sends  from  his  farm  but 
$6.35  worth  of  fertility,  but  receives  20  times  as 


RELATION   OF   FOOD   TO    MANURE 


much  for  it  as  the  value  of  the  fertility  contained  in 
it.  If  he  sells  milk  he  receives  40  times  as  much  as 
the  fertility  contained  in  it,  and  if  he  sells  butter  his> 
returns  are  1,000  times  as  much  as  is  the  value  of  the 
fertility  sold  in  the  butter  product. 

FERTILIZING    CONSTITUENTS     IN     CERTAIN     PLANT    AND 
ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


In  one  ton  of  substance 

Phos- 

i 

Material 

Nitrogen 

phoric 
acid 

Potash 

Value 

Timothy  hay    .... 

18.8 

6.6 

28.4 

$   4.75 

Clover  hay          .  .  . 

39'  4 

11  0 

37.4 

8.72 

Corn     

33  0 

14.2 

11.4 

6.56 

Wheat 

38  0 

11  0 

17  4 

7.50 

Cottonseed    meal.  . 

145.0 

60.8 

31.6 

27.82 

Fat  ox 

46  6 

31  0 

3  8 

9  19 

Fat   pig    . 

35  4 

13  0 

2  8 

6  35 

Milk     

11  6 

3  8 

3.4 

2.17 

Butter 

2.4 

0.8 

0.4 

0.44 

Loss  of  Fertility  Contained  in  Feed. — Due  to  care- 
less methods  of  handling  manure,  there  is  a  tremen- 
dous loss  of  fertility  in  the  aggregate  each  year. 
Much  of  the  nitrogen  is  lost  through  fermentation 
and  leaching  as  fast  as  the  manure  is  made.  Much 
of  the  potash  is  lost  in  drainage  waters  from  the 
stable  and  the  barnyards.  This  loss  can  be  greatly 
lessened  by  the  use  of  litter  in  the  stables,  by  cov- 
ered barnyards,  and  through  the  addition  from  day 
to  day  of  some  preservative  like  acid  phosphate  to 
the  excrement  as  made. 

There  is  loss  through  leaching,  not  only  in  barn- 
yards, but  wherever  manure  is  exposed  to  the  influ- 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


ence  of  the  weather.  In  loose,  open  piles  fully  one- 
half  of  the  fertilizing  value  may  disappear  in  a  half- 
year  period.  If  manure  is  not  hauled  direct  to  the 
field  and  scattered,  it  may  be  fairly  well  preserved 
in  large  piles,  which  should  be  kept  moist;  or  in 
covered  barnyards,  where  it  should  be  thoroughly 
compacted,  with  enough  litter  provided  to  absorb 
the  liquid  and  keep  the  animals  clean.  Fresh 
manures  that  undergo  fermentation  rapidly,  such  as 
horse  and  sheep  manures,  should  be  mixed  with  lit- 


BEEF 


MILK       BUTTER 
REMOVAL  OF  FERTILITY 


WHEAT 


In  the  sketch  are  shown  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  removed  from  the  soil  when  1,000  pounds  each  of  beef,  milk,  butter 
and  wheat  are  sold. 


ter  immediately,  else  the  nitrogen  will  be  lost.  Gyp- 
sum sprinkled  on  fresh  manure  has  long  been  a 
popular  preservative. 

Poor  Manure. — That  it  pays  to  give  the  preserva- 
tion of  manure  close  attention  is  shown  by  the  tests 
conducted  by  the  Ohio  station.  Here  poorly  pre- 
served and  well-preserved  manure  was  used  in  field 
tests.  In  both  cases  the  rate  of  application  was 
eight  tons  to  the  acre  on  clover  sod  plowed  under 
for  corn,  and  then  followed  in  a.  three-year  rotation 


RELATION   OF   FOOD   TO    MANURE 


313 


with  wheat  and  clover  without  further  manuring  or 
fertilizing.  The  table  following  shows  the  average 
increase  of  each  crop  for  both  kinds  of  manure : 


YARD  AND  FRESH   MANURE  COMPARED 


Kind  of  manure 

Bushels  of 
corn 

Bushels  of 
wheat 

Pounds  of 
hay 

Yard  manure  
Fresh  manure  .... 

16.03 
22.24 

8.21 
9.73 

698 
1,280 

In  discussing  these  tests,  Director  Thorne  says 
that  not  only  was  the  manure  greatly  reduced  in 
quantity,  but  the  quality  likewise  was  impaired  by 
exposure,  the  rain  leaching  out  the  most  soluble  and 
therefore  the  most  valuable  portion.  At  current 
prices  the  average  increase  from  a  ton  of  open  yard 
manure,  including  the  straw  and  stover,  was  worth 
about  $2,  while  that  from  the  fresh  manure  reached 
an  average  value  of  nearly  $3,  and  this  value  was  in- 
creased to  $4.50  when  the  manure  was  reinforced 
with  acid  phosphate. 

That  manure  materially  decreases  in  bulk  and 
plant  food  value  is  shown  in  an  experiment  recorded 
by  Professor  Roberts.  Starting  with  4,000  pounds 
of  manure  the  amount  decreased  to  1,730  pounds; 
because  of  poor  preservation  60  per  cent  of  the  nitro- 
gen escaped  into  the  air;  and  75  per  cent  of  the 
potassium  and  40  per  cent  of  the  phosphorus  leached 
away  in  rain  water.  When  this  pile  of  manure  is 
considered  from  the  standpoint  of  money  value,  it  is 
found  that  at  the  beginning  it  was  worth  $5.48;  but 


314 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


after  being  exposed  for  five  months  the  plant  food 
value  was  only  $2.03 — scarcely  one-third  its  original 
value. 

Why  Full  Value  of  Fertility  of  Feeds  Is  Not 
Secured  to  Lands. — Many  farmers  fail  to  get  results 
in  the  field  from  the  use  of  manure,  considered  from 


How  FARM  MANURE  Is  WASTED 

Handled  in  this  manner,  the  nitrogen  and  soluble  fertilizing  materials 
leach  out  and  waste  away.  This  explains  why  much  farm  manure  is  of 
little  value  when  placed  on  the  land. 


the  standpoint  of  actual  fertilizing  value,  not  be- 
cause the  plant  food  is  not  in  the  manure  made 
from  the  feed  given  the  animals,  but  because  of  neglect 
after  the  manure  has  been  made.  Farmers  often 
fail  also  to  get  a  full  response  from  the  use  of  feeds, 
just  as  they  fail  to  get  maximum  returns  from  the 
manure  made  from  the  feeds. 


RELATION    OF    FOOD   TO    MANURE  315 

From  actual  feeding  tests  it  has  been  shown  that 
a  ton  of  alfalfa  or  of  cowpea  hay  is  almost  equal  in 
feeding  value  to  a  ton  of  wheat  bran.  This  is  not 
only  evident  from  the  digestible  composition  of 
these  feeds,  but  from  feeding  tests.  If  therefore, 
when  put  to  the  test  a  ton  of  alfalfa  proves  far  in- 
ferior to  wheat  bran,  or  if  when  this  alfalfa  is  fed 
to  bee^or  dairy  cattle  the  full  fertilizing  value  is  not 
secured ;  or  if  gluten,  cottonseed  meal,  or  other  con- 
centrates, when  fed,  do  not  fetch  the  results  in  the 
field  when  the  resulting  manure  is  applied,  it  should 
not  be  concluded  that  the  practical  side  of  the  feed 
and  the  fertilizing  questions  do  not  correspond  with 
the  theoretical  facts. 

Ordinarily,  the  explanation  will  be  found  else- 
where. A  ton  of  inferior  alfalfa  hay  is  not  equal  in 
feeding  value  to  a  ton  of  wheat  bran  if  weather- 
beaten,  much  rained  upon,  or  weedy  and  unappetiz- 
ing. A  ton  of  cottonseed  meal  is  not  worth  its  esti- 
mated value  for  feeding  and  fertilizing  if  it  contains 
so  many  hulls  that  its  protein  and  fat  constituents 
are  far  below  its  normal  composition.  The  fact  is, 
the  plant  food  contained  in  a  ton  of  cottonseed  meal 
is  worth  $27.82  according  to  the  prices  of  commer- 
cial fertilizers,  but  the  farmer  will  fail  to  get  results 
in  line  with  this  fact  if  the  liquid  manure  is  lost  or 
if  the  manure  is  leached  by  rains  or  burned  up 
through  fermentation.  This  same  cottonseed  meal 
will  not  be  worth  its  commercial  price  as  a  feeding 
stuff  when  fed  to  a  poor  cow  or  steer  as  compared 
with  other  feeds  of  good  quality  consumed  by  a  good 
cow  or  steer. 


316  FEEDING     FARM   ANIMALS 

The  Full  Value  of  a  Feeding  Stuff  for  feed  and 
fertilizer  is  secured  only  when  the  feed  has  been 
properly  prepared  in  the  first  place,  then  fed  in  the 
proper  combination  with  other  feeds  to  farm  ani- 
mals of  good  breeding  and  selected  for  the  purpose 
to  which  they  are  best  adapted,  and  finally  so 
handled  as  manure  that  the  fertilizing  materials  are 
not  lost  through  fermentation,  decomposition  and 
leaching.  Such  practice  is  good  farming  and  is 
fundamental  for  success  in  feed  lot  or  open  field. 


APPENDI 


817 


APPENDIX 


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323 


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APPENDIX 


327 


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330 


APPENDIX 


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INDEX 


INDEX 


PAGE 
Abomasum   23 

Alfalfa  for  brood  sows 149 

Aluminum     3 

Animals,  cheapest  gain  in  young       36 

composition   of    36-37 

feeding    young    125 

little   trouble   with   suckling 131 

what   animals   contain    40 

Appetite    29 

Ash     17,40,41 

Ash,  constituents   of   38 

Baby  beef,   objections   against....   211 
Baby  beeves   finished  on  grass...   210 

Bacon,  making  good 253 

Balanced    ration    29 

Beef   animals,  two   classes   of....   201 

Beef  calf   135 

Beef   calves   fed   first   winter 207 

Beef  cattle,  feeding  of ?.98 

Beef,    food    requirements    for....    198 

Beef  stock,  good   and  bad 200 

Beeves,    age    of    fattening 199 

fall    feeding    of,   on    grass 214 

finished  at  two  years  of  age...   211 

Blood    circulation     28 

Bones      5 

Breeding   animals,  feeding  of....    145 

Brood    mares     152 

Brood    sow    149 

Butter,  grade   and   quality   of 188 

Calcium    3 

Calf,  feeding  beef   135 

Calf  feeds    132 

Calves,   feeding  for  beef 203 

Calves    on   whole   milk    205 

Calves  the  second  winter 191 

Calving    time     148 

Capacity   of  silos    278 

Capillaries    26 

Carbohydrates     4 1 ,  42,  43,  56 

Carbon      4 

Carrots    for   horses    167 

Cattle,   feeding   full   grown 215 

Cell   division    12 

Cells,   plant    12 

Chemical    elements    1,2 

Chemical    elements   in   plants   and 

animals     3 

Chemical   elements   united    4 

Chemical    energy    95 

Chicks,    feed   for  little 260 

Chlorine   3 

Chyme    25 


PAGE 

Circulation   of  blood 28 

Cockerels,   fattening  the     265 

Co-efficient  of  digestibility    49 

Colostrum    126 

Colt  creep    143 

Combustible  matter   36 

Corn,  composition   of    48 

Corn,   hogging  off    253 

Corn    stover,    composition    of....     50 

Cost  of  nutrients   117 

Cost   of   ration    107 

Covered    barnyard    182 

Cow,   beef,   on    range 148 

Cowpeas     44 

Cow,  what  age  is  best 175 

Cow    when    carrying    calf 146 

Crate    feeding    for    poultry 265 

Creep    for  colts    143 

Crude    fiber    19 

Dairy   calf,   feeding   the    132 

Dairy    calves,    rations    for 193 

Dairy  cattle,  feeding  of 172 

Dairy    cows,    computing    the    ra- 
tions   for     103 

feeding  of   184 

food  requirements  of 172 

Dairy  stock,  feeding  young 188 

Dew     18 

Digestible    nutrients    50,51 

Digestibility     31,  45,  51 

co-efficient    of     49 

decrease  of   31 

how  determined   46 

Digestion      21 

Digestion,  what  influences 34 

Dishorning 192 

Dry  cows,  summer  and  winter. . .    194 

Duodenum    25 

Eggs  chemically  analyzed 258 

feeding   for,   in   winter 274 

Elements  and  their  symbols 20 

Energy    42 

Energy    values    93 

Energy   values   in   feeds 95 

Ether    extract    19 

Ewe,   feed    for    154 

Exercise   for  brood  sows    152 

Extract  juice   24 

Farm   horses,   feeding    15.6 

Farm   manures,   value   of    308 

Farm   poultry,    feeding    258 

Fat 15,  40,  41,  42,  43,  56 

Fattening    cockerels    265 


334 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Fattening  grown  sheep   236 

Fattening    hogs     251 

Fattening  horses 169 

Feed,   at  lambing  time    155 

Feeding  beef   cattle    198 

Feeding   box   for  hay    149 

Feeding   dairy   cattle    172 

Feeding  dai-y  cow  with  calf 146 

Feeding  dairy  cows  in  winter.  . . .    184 

Feeding    farm    horses    156 

Feeding   farm   poultry    258 

Feeding  grain   on   pasture 179 

Feeding    lambs    137 

Feeding   lambs   for   market    235 

Feeding  little  chicks 260 

Feeding  mules 170 

Feeding   of  breeding   animals 145 

Feeding    period    extended    59 

Feeding  pigs   141 

Feeding,  regularity  in   162 

Feeding   sheep    223 

Feeding  standard   as  guide.  ..  .62,  181 

Feeding    standards     58,61 

Feeding  standards  on  the  basis  of 

starch  values 88 

Feeding    stuffs    45 

composition   of   47 

for    cattle     217 

what  they  contain 12 

Feeding  stuffs,   full   value   of....   316 
Feeding  stuffs   possess   energy...     93 

vary  in  price 113 

Feeding  swine 241 

Feeding  the  beef  calf 135 

Feeding  the  dairy  calf   132 

Feeding  the   foal    143 

Feeding   the  stallion    167 

Feeding   young   animals    125 

Feeding  young  dairy  stock 188 

Feeds,    calf    132 

Feeds,  double  value  in   309 

Feeds,  easy  to  swap   113 

energy  value  of   95 

judgment  in  purchasing 114 

roughage  for  horses    163 

Feeds,  grain,   for  horses 165 

Fertility  in   feeds   314 

loss   of,   in   feed    311 

selling    of 310 

Fertilizers,  buying    10 

Fertilizing  elements,  their  value..       9 

Foal,    feeding   of    143 

Food   and  manure    306 

Food,  character  of    157 

Food,  nature  of 157 

Food  nutrients    44 

Food  requirements   for  beef 198 

for  dairy  cows   172 

for  horses   156 

for    sheep    223 

for  swine   24 1 

Food  requirements   of  the  young  125 


PAGE 

Food    requirements    on    i"\sis    of 

starch    values    89 

Food  should   be  home   grown....    117 

Food,  steaming  and  cooking 34 

Food  supply  for  cows 194 

Food,    uses    of    63 

Foods,  appetizing 29 

laxative     147 

Foods    during   the    molt 273 

Foods,   mixed    66 

Foods,    what   to    choose    74 

Fowls,    grain    feed    for 267 

Fowls,  grit  necessary  for 271 

Grain,  feeding  on  pasture 179 

Grain    feeds    for    cows 187 

for   calves    190 

for    horses    165 

Green    feeds    268 

Gums    19 

Haecker's  investigation   77 

Haecker's   standard    79 

Hay  32 

Hay   curing    33 

Heat    94 

Heavy  milkers,  feeding  for 70 

Heifers  fatten  early 217 

Hens  in  summer    271 

Herd   bull,   care   of    192 

Hogging  off  corn 253 

Hog    house    150 

Hogs,  best   gains   made   early....   244 

fattening     39 

forage    for   cheap   gain 250 

gain    with    age    39 

grazing  rations   for   249 

heavy   eaters    243 

mineral   matter   for    246 

Horses,   fattening  for  market....    169 

feeding    farm    156 

food   requirements   for    156 

two   rations    for,   compared....    Ill 

Hydrogen    3 

Incombustible  matter 37 

Intestinal   digestion    . 25 

Intestines    26 

Jron 3 

Kellner  feeding  standards    328 

Lambing  time    155 

Lambs 138 

Lambs,  feeding  of,  for  market...  235 

Laxative   foods    147 

Laying  hens    276 

Leaf   cells    16 

Leaf  mouths    4 

Leaf,  underside  of 14 

Legumes    8,  115 

Life,   cycle    of    4,41 

Lymph    27 

Maintenance  requirements  for  en- 
ergy          97 

Maintenance    standard     59 

Manure,    relation    to    food 306 

what  makes  poor 312 


INDEX 


335 


PAGE 

Manures,  natural,  and  fertilizers..  9 

iviare,  feeding  brood 152 

Measuring    heat    94 

Meat    feeds    270 

Milk     130 

Milk,  fertilizing  value   of 39 

how    often   to    174 

producing,    economically     182 

quality    of    75 

requirements    for    100 

what    influences    quality    176 

Milk  formation,  what  influences..  174 

Milk,    skim    130 

Milk-yielding    function    172 

Mineral   material    17,40,46 

Mixtures,   for  calves    190 

Moldy    hay    158 

Molt    of    fowls    273 

Mucin    24 

Mules,   feeding  of    170 

Nature   is   balanced    1 

Nature    of   food    157 

Nature,   three   divisions    1 

Nitrogen     4,  38 

Nitrogen-free    compounds    19 

Nutrients,  cost  of 1 1 7,  122 

defined    44 

digestible    50 

Nutritive    ratio    55 

determination    of    56 

wide   or  narrow    57 

Oil     15 

Omasum     23 

Osmosis    13 

Oxygen    3 

Pastures  are  ideal  basic  rations..  177 

Paunch      22 

Pepsin    24 

Phosphoric  acid   38 

Phosphorus      3 

Pigging    time    151 

Pigs,  feeding  of 141 

pasture    for    248 

Plant  building,   its   meaning    ....  16 

Plant  cells   12 

Plant    constituents    grouped     ....  19 

Plant   food,  supply  of    6 

Plant  tissue   13 

Plants,  how  they  grow   12 

Portable    house    for    hogs 150 

Potash     38 

Potassium    3 

Prime    steers    209 

Protein    15,  40,  41 ,  42,  43,  123 

not    solely   purchased    117 

oversupply  of    75 

purchase  of 119 

requirements   for  cows    183 

Protoplasm    13 

Ptyalin    21 

Quality    of    butter    188 

Quality    of   milk    176 


PAGE 

Rape  for  sheep    231 

in   pork   making    151 

to  supplement  pasture    291 

Ration  and  starch  values   89 

Ration,    balanced    57 

changes  with  age  127 

compared  on  basis  of  cost....  109 

computation    of    63 

making  a   66 

selection    of,    for   horses 167 

the    cost    of    107 

widening    of    129 

Rations,   three   kinds   of    63 

Raw    materials    changed    by    ani- 
mals      11 

how   converted    10 

Rennet    24 

Requirements  for  work 158 

Respiration     28 

Reticulum 22 

Root  hair,  cross  section   2 

Roots   fine    for  sheep 228 

Roughage  for  horses 163 

Roughage  materials   123 

Rumen    22 

Saliva    21 

Salt    for    cows    191 

Sap   currents    18 

Scrub  animals   30 

Sheep,    fattening   grown    236 

feeding   of     223 

how  often  to  feed   230 

on   full   rations    232 

relative   economy   of    225 

roots  fine   for    228 

roughage  feeds  for   231 

temporary   fences   for    232 

variety    of    food    for.* 226 

water  for  229 

Silage    277 

cost  of  making 284 

crops   for   283 

cutting  corn  for   284 

economy  in    278 

feeding     282 

Silicon    3 

Silo      277 

building    the    285 

calculating  size  of 280 

capacity   of    278 

essentials    of   good    279 

filling   the    281 

various  types  of 286 

Skim  milk  calves   204 

Slop    for   hogs    247 

Sodium     3 

Soiling,  advantages  of   297 

objections  to   298 

suggestions  for  scheme 299 

Soiling  crops  in   favor   292 

Soiling  system,  the   289 


336 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Sow,   at  pigging  time   151 

exercise    for   brood    152 

food    for    brood    149 

Soy   beans,    double   good    from...  8 

Stable  management  or  cows 191 

Stallion,  feeding  the   167 

Standards     58,  61,  328 

for   farm    animals    60,61,328 

in  practical  work 72 

Starch   13 

as    the    standard    nutrient 82 

how  plants  use 14 

Starch    cells     15 

Starch,   relative   value   of   83 

Starch   value    82 

actual  and  calculated 85 

computing  rations  on  basis  of.  89 

how  to  obtain   84 

illustrated 82 

in    relation    to    feeding    stand- 
ards       88 

in  relation  to  food  requirements  89 

Steer,   character   of  good 200 

Steers,  computing  a  ration   for. .  100 


PAGE 

Stomach      22 

Stomach,    cow's    23 

Stomach   secretion    24 

Stomata       4 

Sugar    19 

Sulphur     3 

Swine,  feeding  of 241 

Teeth    21,22 

Tuberculin  test   192 

Units    for    measuring    heat 94 

Veal 206 

Villi    cells    26,27 

Water 18,  37,  40,  41 

Water    for    cows     191 

Water,  giving  to  horses   160 

Water   in   growing   plants 17 

Watering,  regularity  in   162 

Weaned   chicks    263 

Wheat,  grain  of   34 

Wild  cattle  seldom   fat 198 

Wolff-Lehmann    standards    61 

Work,   requirements   for   158 

Work,   requirements   fcv  horses..  100 


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